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Senam Mata untuk Relaksasi

2009-12-11T07:27:00.001+07:00

Tanpa kita sadari beragam aktivitas kita seringkali 'menyiksa' mata kita, misalnya, bekerja di depan komputer tanpa beristirahat, atau membaca dengan posisi tubuh yang tidak tepat. Hal-hal tersebut membuat mata kita tidak rileks. Akibat yang paling sering terjadi adalah mata terasa perih karena iritasi. Selain itu, mata bisa menjadi merah. Akibat lainnya, mata menderita rabun jauh atau dekat. Ketegangan otot di kelopak mata juga dapat mengakibatkan pergeseran bola mata. Lebih gawat lagi, bisa berakibat katarak.

Untuk meredakan kelelahan mata, Anda dapat menggunakan telapak tangan. Caranya, letakan telapak tangan di masing-masing mata, lalu silangkan jari-jari kedua tangan satu sama lain. Setelah kedua mata tertutup oleh telapak tangan dan tak ada cahaya yang masuk melalui sela-sela jari, biarkan mata terbuka. Tahan posisi itu beberapa saat dan pastikan, Anda benar-benar melihat kegelapan. Lakukan ini beberapa kali sehari.

Selain mengistirahatkan mata sejenak di sela-sela aktivitas, Anda juga dapat merawat kedua mata Anda dengan melakukan senam mata. Berikut adalah latihan yang dapat Anda lakukan:

1. Pijat daerah bawah kedua mata menggunakan jari tengah

2. Tekan sedikit dan rasakan otot-otot mata yang kaku (jika baru pertama kali mencoba, jangan terlalu berlebihan karena dapat menyebabkan nyeri kepala)

3. Kemudian, beralih pada tulang atas mata. Berikan pijatan beberapa kali

4. Pijat bagian urat-urat yang kaku di bagian atas mata dekat hidung, lalu arahkan ke sudut mata dan pijat perlahan. Lalu pindah ke otot-otot di bagian atas alis.

Lakukan hal-hal di atas secara rutin. Lalu, yang terpenting, jangan 'menyiksa' mata Anda dengan memforsirnya tanpa beristirahat.

(Berbagaisumber/Mazfiar)

Khasiat Cabai Merah

2009-12-11T07:25:00.000+07:00

Sambal, sepertinya telah menjadi bagian wajib dalam menu makanan masyarakat Indonesia. Sambal, yang berbahan dasar cabai merah, memang berkhasiat sebagai simultan untuk menambah nafsu makan.

Selain itu, tanaman yang berasal dari Amerika tropis ini memiliki beberapa manfaat kesehatan. Cabai yang terasa pedas dan panas di lidah ini berkhasiat sebagai peluruh keringat (diaforetik), perangsang kulit, dan sebagai obat gosok. Bagian yang sering digunakan sebagai obat adalah buah dan daunnya.

Untuk obat yang diminum, rebus atau keringkan 0,5-1 gram buah, lalu haluskan sampai menjadi serbuk. Untuk pemakaian luar, rebus 0,5-1 gram buah, lalu air rebusannya digunakan sebagai obat kompres. Selain itu, buah cabai dapat dicampur dengan bahan lain untuk obat gosok. Getah daun muda digunakan untuk pengobatan luka, bisul, dan sakit gigi.

Untuk mengobati rematik, cara pemakaiannya sebagai berikut: seduh 10 gram serbuk buah cabai merah dalam 1/2 gelas air panas. Aduk sampai rata dan diamkan beberapa menit. Hasil seduhannya dibalurkan pada bagian tubuh yang sakit.

Selain itu, cabai juga dapat digunakan untuk mengobati luka dan bisul. Caranya, oleskan minyak sayur pada beberapa helai daun cabai, lalu layukan di atas api kecil. Tempelkan daun cabai tersebut selagi hangat pada bagian kulit yang terluka.

(iptek/cynthia)

Cara Sederhana Menajamkan Otak

2009-12-11T07:21:00.001+07:00

Kadang sangatlah sulit mengingat banyak hal di sekitar kita. Seringkali hal yang penting malah menjadi terbengkalai karena menurunnya daya ingat kita.

Selain minum suplemen untuk menambah daya ingat, ada cara yang sangat mudah dan sederhana agar ingatan kita tetap kuat dan baik. Para peneliti Australia telah melakukan penelitian terhadap 29.500 orang yang punya daya ingat luar biasa, dan menemukan 7 kebiasaan yang bisa membuat daya ingat kita lebih kuat dan tahan lama.

Para responden tersebut disebutkan memiliki daya ingat luar biasa karena mampu memutar ulang memori jangka panjang (mengingat apa yang terjadi secara baik hingga 20 tahun lalu), dan memori jangka pendek (mengingat apapun yang ada pada daftar belanjaan), hingga kemampuan mengingat wajah, nama, serta jabatan seseorang.

Berdasarkan data yang berhasil dikumpulkan, rata-rata mereka memiliki kesamaan gaya hidup dan aktivitas. Inilah yang kemudian disimpulkan sebagai 7 kebiasaan untuk mengasah daya ingat, yaitu:

1. Jarang atau tidak sama sekali mengonsumsi minuman beralkohol
2. Menonton siaran televisi kurang dari 1 jam per hari
3. Membaca novel
4. Mengisi teka-teki silang
5. Mengonsumsi ikan
6. Minum teh atau kopi
7. Memiliki dan tentunya menulis buku harian

Mudah dan sederhanakan? Mari kita coba 7 kebiasaan ini agar daya ingat kita lebih kuat dan tahan lama.

(preventionindonesia/cynthia)

ANNOUNCEMENT

2009-12-11T07:15:00.002+07:00

EVALUASI:
1. Buatlah Kisi-kisi soal:
Jumlah Soal: 25 item
Multiple Choice: 20 (memuat: reading, vocabulary, Grammar, Language function)
2. Bentuk:
a. Kartu Soal
b. Essay ditambahan pedoman penskoran
3. Deadline: 30 Desember 2009

Ketahui Jabat Tangan Yang Bermakna

2009-12-11T07:10:00.000+07:00

Berjabat tangan sudah menjadi bagian ritual dunia usaha. Mungkin Anda terkadang menganggap berjabat tangan bukanlah hal penting apalagi tidak terlalu perlu dipikirkan panjang-panjang, tetapi tidak bagi orang yang sedang berjabatan dengan Anda. Sikapnya dalam berjabatan menampilkan sebagian besar kesannya terhadap Anda.

Ingatkah Anda bagaimana kesalnya Anda bila berjabatan dengan orang yang memberikan jabatan yang amat lemah lunglai atau sebaliknya terlalu keras bersemangat.

Jangan sampai Anda dikategorikan sebagai orang yang mengesankan tidak baik saat berjabat tangan. Berikut beberapa teknik berjabatan tangan yang efektif :

Tataplah mata lawan bicara Anda saat berjabatan tangan dengannya. Tidak ada yang lebih mengacuhkan selain jabatan tangan tanpa tatapan mata. Ini menunjukkan rasa tidak hormat atau tidak tertarik. Dengan menatap lawan bicara saat berjabatan, Anda menumbuhkan keyakinan dan kepercayaan diri.

Berjabat tanganlah dari telapak ke telapak. Jangan berjabatan tangan dengan mempertemukan telapak dengan jari, atau jari dengan jari. Dengan berjabatan tangan dari telapak ke telapak (seutuhnya) akan memberikan perasaan bersahabat dan tidak meninggalkan perasaan yang tidak nyaman atau terluka.

Jangan terlalu akrab. Beberapa orang bertindak berlebihan dengan menarik tangan lawan dan secara keras mengayunkan ke atas ke bawah. Jabat tangan semacam ini sama dengan “mulut besar”. Bersikaplah percaya diri, jangan membuat orang lain kesal.

Sadarlah akan keterbatasan phisik seseorang. Orang jompo, cacat, atau penderita arthistis mungkin memiliki tulang yang lemah dan keterbatasan gerak. Melukai seseorang saat berjabatan tangan mungkin justru menutup pintu bukannya membuka pintu hubungan yang baik.

Ingatlah untuk menciptakan jabat tangan yang bermakna. Jika Anda berjabatan tangan lalu dengan segera menarik tangan Anda dan melanjutkan pembicaraan seolah-olah tidak terjadi apa-apa, maka orang akan menganggapnya sebagai jabatan tangan tidak berarti dan tidak tulus.

Berikan pada lawan Anda beberapa saat untuk menunjukkan perhatian Anda melalui kontak mata atau pembicaraan sebelum Anda menarik tangan Anda. Mereka akan merasa bahwa mereka sedang bertemu dengan orang yang layak.

(Deek Mc Aleer/Nv@)

Makanan Perusak Fungsi Ginjal

2009-10-13T16:37:00.000+07:00

Ginjal berfungsi sebagai penyaring darah dalam tubuh. Ada beberapa makanan yang bisa memperberat kerja ginjal. Akibatnya, ginjal jadi cepat aus dan tidak dapat bekerja secara sempurna.

1. Jengkol
Para penggemar jengkol, tentu sering merasakan gangguan saat hendak buang air kecil. Jengkol mengandung kristal atau jengkolic acid. Asam jengkol ini yang jadi kristal dan kemudian menyumbat saluran kencing. Saluran kencing yang tertutup membuat sampah atau racun tidak dibuang. Akibatnya bisa timbul infeksi saluran kemih. Bila tidak ditangani, kondisi demikian akan merambat ke organ ginjal.

2. Obat pelangsing
Konsumsi obat pelangsing yang tidak benar, yakni dengan cara pengurangan cairan di dalam tubuh dalam jumlah besar, turut menyumbang kejadian gagal ginjal. Berat badan memang akan turun akibat diare atau dehidrasi karena kencing berlebihan, tetapi fungsi ginjal menjadi terganggu.

3. Obat amfetamin
Obat jenis ini membuat orang sulit tidur. Akibatnya, pembakaran energi berjalan terus. Amfetamin itu dapat menyempitkan pembuluh darah. Akibatnya, darah yang bergerak ke ginjal akan berkurang. Pada akhirnya ginjai kekurangan asupan makanan.

4. Antibiotik dan pereda nyeri
Tak hanya obat untuk pelangsing atau amfetamin saja yang bisa merusak fungsi ginjal. Penggunaan obat pereda nyeri, antibiotika, atau steroid secara terus-menerus dalam jumlah berlebih dalam beberapa bulan dapat menyebabkan sakit ginjal.

5. Obat herbal
Obat maupun suplemen herbal, bikinan dalam negeri maupun impor, ternyata memiliki risiko merusak ginjal. Sebaiknya kita menolak suplemen dan obat herbal yang manjur dan cespleng karena berarti tidak murni herbal, tetapi ada kandungan kimia obat yang dosisnya tidak terkontrol. Jika harus meminumnya, pilih obat atau suplemen herbal yang telah mendapat izin dari FDA dan BPOM.

Objective and Subjective Evaluation

2009-09-11T05:58:00.002+07:00

If we view objectivity and subjectivity of evaluation along a continuum, we can represent various assessment and scoring methods along its length.

Test items that can be evaluated objectively have one right answer (or one correct response pattern, in the case of more complex item formats). Scorers do not need to exercise judgment in marking responses correct or incorrect. They generally mark a test by following an answer key. In some cases, objective tests are scored by scanning machines and computers. Objective tests are often constructed with selected-response item formats, such as multiple-choice, matching, and true-false. An advantage to including selected-response items in objectively scored tests is that the range of possible answers is limited to the options provided by the test writer—the test taker cannot supply alternative, acceptable responses.

Because much of what we assess in reading and listening comprehension measures is first interpreted by the test writer, some degree of subjectivity is present in objectively scored items. For that reason, assessments of the Interpretive mode, even those comprised of "one-right-answer" items, might not be placed all the way at the objective end of the continuum.

Evaluating responses objectively can be more difficult with even the simplest of constructed-response item formats. An answer key may specify the correct answer for a one word, gap-filling item, but there may in fact be multiple, acceptable alternative responses to that item that the teacher or test developer did not anticipate. In classroom testing situations, teachers may perceive some responses as equally or partially correct, and apply some subjective judgment in refining their scoring criteria as they mark tests. Informal scoring criteria for short-answer items probably work well for classroom testing as long as they are applied consistently and are defensible.

Just as there may be few truly objective measures of second language knowledge and skill, so too is it rare to find purely subjective evaluations of performance. Allowing the subjective impressions of scorers to determine learners' grades would not be acceptable to most students, their parents, or other stakeholders. We do not usually have to justify our opinion that a work of art is good or bad—we simply like it or we don't. Since our judgment has no significant consequences for the artist (unless we are art critics), a subjective evaluation is acceptable. It is also not a matter of concern that the many viewers of the artwork do not agree about its quality.

In assessment, we strive to ensure two types of reliability: inter-rater (raters agree with each other) and intra-rater (a rater gives the same score to a performance rated on separate occasions). The higher the stakes, the more reliable (consistent) judgments must be. Scoring criteria, in the form of rubrics, are generally used to guide raters to arrive at the same, or nearly the same, evaluation of a product. Thus, although it is common to refer to scoring which requires human judgment as subjective evaluation, in most cases we might place it near the midpoint on our objective-subjective continuum.

In rated assessments, the scoring criteria form an integral part of the evaluation. Specialists in language testing often identify three key components in performance assessment. These components are:

Tasks that are effective in eliciting the performance to be assessed.
Rating criteria to evaluate the quality of the performance. The criteria reflect the relative importance of various aspects of the performance, and are appropriate for the population being assessed.
Raters that are trained to apply the criteria and can do so consistently.

Characteristic of a Good Test

2009-09-10T04:29:00.001+07:00

The questions we ask about a test will vary in each case depending on purpose, time and subject. In general we have to consider if a test is valid, reliable, scorable, economical and administrable.

Validity : Does the test measure what should be measure? If it does it is a valid test. Validity in language test depend on the linguistic content of the test and on the situation or techniques used to test this content. Validity can be achieved and verified indirectly by correlating the score on the test with those of another test or criterion which is valid.
Reliability: Does the test yield the same scores one day and the next if there has been no instruction intervening. This means does the test yield dependable score in the sense that they will not fluctuate very much so that we may know that the sore obtained by the student is pretty close to the score he would obtained. Reliability is necessary for validity because a test with scores which fluctuate very much does not test anything. Reliability is measured by: first, correlation between the scores of the same set of the students on two consecutive administrations of the test (re-testing). Second, computing separate scores for two halves of the same test. The correlation of between the sets of scores of two halves of the test is the coefficient of reliability for one-half of the test.
Scorability: Can the test be score with ease so that the users may be able to handle it?
Economy: Does the test measure what we want it to test in reasonable time considering the testing situation? If does the test is practical and economical.
Administrability: Can the test be given under the condition that control and by the personnel that is available? This means, if we do not have a record player, a test on a record cannot be administered.

The term validity itself could be differentiated into:

1. Content validity: the analysis accord with the views of recognized authorities in the skills area and the test then reflects such an analysis.

2. Empirical validity: How test score are related to some independent, outside criterion such as marks given at the end of a course or instructor or supervisor rating.

3. Face validity: the way the test looks-to examinees, test administrators, educator and the like.

Komponen Dalam Kurikulum

2009-09-10T04:19:00.002+07:00

Kurikulum memiliki lima komponen utama, yaitu : (1) tujuan; (2) materi; (3) strategi, pembelajaran; (4) organisasi kurikulum dan (5) evaluasi. Kelima komponen tersebut memiliki keterkaitan yang erat dan tidak bisa dipisahkan.

A. . Tujuan

Mengingat pentingnya pendidikan bagi manusia, hampir di setiap negara telah mewajibkan para warganya untuk mengikuti kegiatan pendidikan, melalui berbagai ragam teknis penyelenggaraannya, yang disesuaikan dengan falsafah negara, keadaan sosial-politik kemampuan sumber daya dan keadaan lingkungannya masing-masing. Kendati demikian, dalam hal menentukan tujuan pendidikan pada dasarnya memiliki esensi yang sama. Seperti yang disampaikan oleh Hummel (Uyoh Sadulloh, 1994) bahwa tujuan pendidikan secara universal akan menjangkau tiga jenis nilai utama yaitu:

Autonomy; gives individuals and groups the maximum awarenes, knowledge, and ability so that they can manage their personal and collective life to the greatest possible extent.
Equity; enable all citizens to participate in cultural and economic life by coverring them an equal basic education.
Survival ; permit every nation to transmit and enrich its cultural heritage over the generation but also guide education towards mutual understanding and towards what has become a worldwide realization of common destiny.)

Dalam perspektif pendidikan nasional, tujuan pendidikan nasional dapat dilihat secara jelas dalam Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistrm Pendidikan Nasional, bahwa : ” Pendidikan nasional berfungsi mengembangkan kemampuan dan membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, bertujuan untuk berkembangnya potensi peserta didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warga negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab”..

Tujuan pendidikan nasional yang merupakan pendidikan pada tataran makroskopik, selanjutnya dijabarkan ke dalam tujuan institusional yaitu tujuan pendidikan yang ingin dicapai dari setiap jenis maupun jenjang sekolah atau satuan pendidikan tertentu.

B. Materi Pembelajaran

Dalam menentukan materi pembelajaran atau bahan ajar tidak lepas dari filsafat dan teori pendidikan dikembangkan. Seperti telah dikemukakan di atas bahwa pengembangan kurikulum yang didasari filsafat klasik (perenialisme, essensialisme, eksistensialisme) penguasaan materi pembelajaran menjadi hal yang utama. Dalam hal ini, materi pembelajaran disusun secara logis dan sistematis, dalam bentuk :

Teori; seperangkat konstruk atau konsep, definisi atau preposisi yang saling berhubungan, yang menyajikan pendapat sistematik tentang gejala dengan menspesifikasi hubungan – hubungan antara variabel-variabel dengan maksud menjelaskan dan meramalkan gejala tersebut.
Konsep; suatu abstraksi yang dibentuk oleh organisasi dari kekhususan-kekhususan, merupakan definisi singkat dari sekelompok fakta atau gejala.
Generalisasi; kesimpulan umum berdasarkan hal-hal yang khusus, bersumber dari analisis, pendapat atau pembuktian dalam penelitian.
Prinsip; yaitu ide utama, pola skema yang ada dalam materi yang mengembangkan hubungan antara beberapa konsep.
Prosedur; yaitu seri langkah-langkah yang berurutan dalam materi pelajaran yang harus dilakukan peserta didik.
Fakta; sejumlah informasi khusus dalam materi yang dianggap penting, terdiri dari terminologi, orang dan tempat serta kejadian.
Istilah, kata-kata perbendaharaan yang baru dan khusus yang diperkenalkan dalam materi.
Contoh/ilustrasi, yaitu hal atau tindakan atau proses yang bertujuan untuk memperjelas suatu uraian atau pendapat.
Definisi:yaitu penjelasan tentang makna atau pengertian tentang suatu hal/kata dalam garis besarnya.
Preposisi, yaitu cara yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan materi pelajaran dalam upaya mencapai tujuan kurikulum.

Materi pembelajaran yang didasarkan pada filsafat progresivisme lebih memperhatikan tentang kebutuhan, minat, dan kehidupan peserta didik. Oleh karena itu, materi pembelajaran harus diambil dari dunia peserta didik dan oleh peserta didik itu sendiri. Materi pembelajaran yang didasarkan pada filsafat konstruktivisme, materi pembelajaran dikemas sedemikian rupa dalam bentuk tema-tema dan topik-topik yang diangkat dari masalah-masalah sosial yang krusial, misalnya tentang ekonomi, sosial bahkan tentang alam. Materi pembelajaran yang berlandaskan pada teknologi pendidikan banyak diambil dari disiplin ilmu, tetapi telah diramu sedemikian rupa dan diambil hal-hal yang esensialnya saja untuk mendukung penguasaan suatu kompetensi. Materi pembelajaran atau kompetensi yang lebih luas dirinci menjadi bagian-bagian atau sub-sub kompetensi yang lebih kecil dan obyektif.

C. Strategi pembelajaran

Telah disampaikan di atas bahwa dilihat dari filsafat dan teori pendidikan yang melandasi pengembangan kurikulum terdapat perbedaan dalam menentukan tujuan dan materi pembelajaran, hal ini tentunya memiliki konsekuensi pula terhadap penentuan strategi pembelajaran yang hendak dikembangkan. Apabila yang menjadi tujuan dalam pembelajaran adalah penguasaan informasi-intelektual,–sebagaimana yang banyak dikembangkan oleh kalangan pendukung filsafat klasik dalam rangka pewarisan budaya ataupun keabadian, maka strategi pembelajaran yang dikembangkan akan lebih berpusat kepada guru. Guru merupakan tokoh sentral di dalam proses pembelajaran dan dipandang sebagai pusat informasi dan pengetahuan. Sedangkan peserta didik hanya dianggap sebagai obyek yang secara pasif menerima sejumlah informasi dari guru. Metode dan teknik pembelajaran yang digunakan pada umumnya bersifat penyajian (ekspositorik) secara massal, seperti ceramah atau seminar. Selain itu, pembelajaran cenderung lebih bersifat tekstual.

Strategi pembelajaran yang berorientasi pada guru tersebut mendapat reaksi dari kalangan progresivisme. Menurut kalangan progresivisme, yang seharusnya aktif dalam suatu proses pembelajaran adalah peserta didik itu sendiri. Peserta didik secara aktif menentukan materi dan tujuan belajarnya sesuai dengan minat dan kebutuhannya, sekaligus menentukan bagaimana cara-cara yang paling sesuai untuk memperoleh materi dan mencapai tujuan belajarnya. Pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik mendapat dukungan dari kalangan rekonstruktivisme yang menekankan pentingnya proses pembelajaran melalui dinamika kelompok.

Pembelajaran cenderung bersifat kontekstual, metode dan teknik pembelajaran yang digunakan tidak lagi dalam bentuk penyajian dari guru tetapi lebih bersifat individual, langsung, dan memanfaatkan proses dinamika kelompok (kooperatif), seperti : pembelajaran moduler, obeservasi, simulasi atau role playing, diskusi, dan sejenisnya.

Dalam hal ini, guru tidak banyak melakukan intervensi. Peran guru hanya sebagai fasilitator, motivator dan guider. Sebagai fasilitator, guru berusaha menciptakan dan menyediakan lingkungan belajar yang kondusif bagi peserta didiknya. Sebagai motivator, guru berupaya untuk mendorong dan menstimulasi peserta didiknya agar dapat melakukan perbuatan belajar. Sedangkan sebagai guider, guru melakukan pembimbingan dengan berusaha mengenal para peserta didiknya secara personal.

Selanjutnya, dengan munculnya pembelajaran berbasis teknologi yang menekankan pentingnya penguasaan kompetensi membawa implikasi tersendiri dalam penentuan strategi pembelajaran. Meski masih bersifat penguasaan materi atau kompetensi seperti dalam pendekatan klasik, tetapi dalam pembelajaran teknologis masih dimungkinkan bagi peserta didik untuk belajar secara individual. Dalam pembelajaran teknologis dimungkinkan peserta didik untuk belajar tanpa tatap muka langsung dengan guru, seperti melalui internet atau media elektronik lainnya. Peran guru dalam pembelajaran teknologis lebih cenderung sebagai director of learning, yang berupaya mengarahkan dan mengatur peserta didik untuk melakukan perbuatan-perbuatan belajar sesuai dengan apa yang telah didesain sebelumnya.

D. Organisasi Kurikulum

Beragamnya pandangan yang mendasari pengembangan kurikulum memunculkan terjadinya keragaman dalam mengorgansiasikan kurikulum. Setidaknya terdapat enam ragam pengorganisasian kurikulum, yaitu:

Mata pelajaran terpisah (isolated subject); kurikulum terdiri dari sejumlah mata pelajaran yang terpisah-pisah, yang diajarkan sendiri-sendiri tanpa ada hubungan dengan mata pelajaran lainnya. Masing-masing diberikan pada waktu tertentu dan tidak mempertimbangkan minat, kebutuhan, dan kemampuan peserta didik, semua materi diberikan sama
Mata pelajaran berkorelasi; korelasi diadakan sebagai upaya untuk mengurangi kelemahan-kelemahan sebagai akibat pemisahan mata pelajaran. Prosedur yang ditempuh adalah menyampaikan pokok-pokok yang saling berkorelasi guna memudahkan peserta didik memahami pelajaran tertentu.
Bidang studi (broad field); yaitu organisasi kurikulum yang berupa pengumpulan beberapa mata pelajaran yang sejenis serta memiliki ciri-ciri yang sama dan dikorelasikan (difungsikan) dalam satu bidang pengajaran. Salah satu mata pelajaran dapat dijadikan “core subject”, dan mata pelajaran lainnya dikorelasikan dengan core tersebut.
Program yang berpusat pada anak (child centered), yaitu program kurikulum yang menitikberatkan pada kegiatan-kegiatan peserta didik, bukan pada mata pelajaran.
Inti Masalah (core program), yaitu suatu program yang berupa unit-unit masalah, dimana masalah-masalah diambil dari suatu mata pelajaran tertentu, dan mata pelajaran lainnya diberikan melalui kegiatan-kegiatan belajar dalam upaya memecahkan masalahnya. Mata pelajaran-mata pelajaran yang menjadi pisau analisisnya diberikan secara terintegrasi.
Ecletic Program, yaitu suatu program yang mencari keseimbangan antara organisasi kurikulum yang terpusat pada mata pelajaran dan peserta didik.

E. Evaluasi Kurikulum

Evaluasi merupakan salah satu komponen kurikulum. Dalam pengertian terbatas, evaluasi kurikulum dimaksudkan untuk memeriksa tingkat ketercapaian tujuan-tujuan pendidikan yang ingin diwujudkan melalui kurikulum yang bersangkutan. Sebagaimana dikemukakan oleh Wright bahwa : “curriculum evaluation may be defined as the estimation of growth and progress of students toward objectives or values of the curriculum”

Sedangkan dalam pengertian yang lebih luas, evaluasi kurikulum dimaksudkan untuk memeriksa kinerja kurikulum secara keseluruhan ditinjau dari berbagai kriteria. Indikator kinerja yang dievaluasi tidak hanya terbatas pada efektivitas saja, namun juga relevansi, efisiensi, kelaikan (feasibility) program. Sementara itu, Hilda Taba menjelaskan hal-hal yang dievaluasi dalam kurikulum, yaitu meliputi ; “ objective, it’s scope, the quality of personnel in charger of it, the capacity of students, the relative importance of various subject, the degree to which objectives are implemented, the equipment and materials and so on.”

Pada bagian lain, dikatakan bahwa luas atau tidaknya suatu program evaluasi kurikulum sebenarnya ditentukan oleh tujuan diadakannya evaluasi kurikulum. Apakah evaluasi tersebut ditujukan untuk mengevaluasi keseluruhan sistem kurikulum atau komponen-komponen tertentu saja dalam sistem kurikulum tersebut. Salah satu komponen kurikulum penting yang perlu dievaluasi adalah berkenaan dengan proses dan hasil belajar siswa.

Agar hasil evaluasi kurikulum tetap bermakna diperlukan persyaratan-persyaratan tertentu. Dengan mengutip pemikian Doll, dikemukakan syarat-syarat evaluasi kurikulum yaitu “acknowledge presence of value and valuing, orientation to goals, comprehensiveness, continuity, diagnostics worth and validity and integration.”

Evaluasi kurikulum juga bervariasi, bergantung pada dimensi-dimensi yang menjadi fokus evaluasi. Salah satu dimensi yang sering mendapat sorotan adalah dimensi kuantitas dan kualitas. Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengevaluasi diemensi kuantitaif berbeda dengan dimensi kualitatif. Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengevaluasi dimensi kuantitatif, seperti tes standar, tes prestasi belajar, tes diagnostik dan lain-lain. Sedangkan, instrumen untuk mengevaluasi dimensi kualitatif dapat digunakan, questionnare, inventori, interview, catatan anekdot dan sebagainya

Evaluasi kurikulum memegang peranan penting, baik untuk penentuan kebijakan pendidikan pada umumnya maupun untuk pengambilan keputusan dalam kurikulum itu sendiri. Hasil-hasil evaluasi kurikulum dapat digunakan oleh para pemegang kebijakan pendidikan dan para pengembang kurikulum dalam memilih dan menetapkan kebijakan pengembangan sistem pendidikan dan pengembangan model kurikulum yang digunakan.

Theory of Language Assessment

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Types of language assessment instruments

Designing and writing a quiz or test, requires that we consider just what it is we want to measure and why. One way to describe language assessment instruments is according to their function or purpose – that is, for administrative, instructional, or research purposes (Jacobs, Zingraf, Wormuth, Hartfiel, & Hughey, 1981). In fact, the same test could conceivably be used for twelve different purposes: five administrative purposes (assessment, placement, exemption, certification, promotion), four instructional purposes (diagnosis, evidence of progress, feed-back to the respondent, evaluation of teaching or curriculum), and three research purposes (evaluation, experimentation, knowledge about language learning and language use). The average test will probably only be used for one or perhaps two purposes by a given individual. Sometimes, teachers, administrators, and researchers will use the same test for their respective purposes. More information on the purposes of assessment can be found in the Why Assess section.

Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced

A distinction in testing is made between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessment as well. A test can be used, for example, to compare a student with other students, whether locally (e.g., in a class), regionally, or nationally as in SAT or ACT tests. Classroom, regional, or national norms may be established to interpret just how one student compares with another. Sometimes teachers speak of using a “curve,” which simply means that they evaluate a student’s performance in comparison with that of other students in the same class or in other classes.

A test can also be used to determine whether a respondent has met certain instructional objectives or criteria. For this reason, such a test would be referred to as “criterion-referenced” assessment.

Communicative and Strategic Competence

The now seminal effort by Canale and Swain (1980; Canale, 1983) to define communicative competence provided another set of criteria for describing tests. Tests are seen as tapping one or more of the four components that make up communicative competence:

Grammatical competence was seen to encompass “knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology” (Canale & Swain, 1980, p. 29).

Discourse competence was defined as the ability to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances.

Sociolinguistic competence was defined as involving knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language and of discourse.

Strategic competence was seen to refer to “the verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence” (Canale & Swain, 1980, p. 30).

While Canale and Swain's strategic competence puts the emphasis on "compensatory" strategies – that is, strategies used to compensate or remediate for a lack in some language area, the term has come to take on a broader meaning: Bachman (1990) provided a broader theoretical model of strategic competence by separating it into three components. Later, Bachman and Palmer (1996) refined the Bachman (1990) categories for strategic competence to include four components:

Assessment – Respondents (in our case of language testing) assess which communicative goals are achievable and what linguistic resources are needed;

Goal-setting – Respondents identify the specific tasks to be performed;

Planning – Respondents retrieve the relevant items from their language knowledge and plan their use;

Execution – Respondents implement the plan. Hence, this latest framework for strategic competence is broad and includes test-taking strategies within it.

Sociocultural and sociolinguistic competence

Over the last several decades, the Canale and Swain model has also undergone several modifications. For example, sociolinguistic competence is seen as encompassing two relatively distinct components:

Sociocultural component – assesses the appropriateness of the strategies selected for language performance in a given context, taking into account (1) the culture involved, (2) the age and sex of the speakers, (3) their social class and occupations, and (4) their roles and status in the interaction.

For example, whereas in some cultures (such as in the U.S.) it may be appropriate for speakers to suggest a time a boss when they will get a report in after having missed missing a deadline, in other cultures (in Israel, for example) such a repair strategy might be considered out of place in that it would most likely be the boss who determines what happens next.

The scale for sociocultural ability also rates what is said in terms of the amount of information required in the given situation, and the relevance and clarity of the information provided.

Sociolinguistic component – assesses the use of linguistic forms in language performance.

For example when a student bumps into a professor, spilling her coffee on the professor’s dress, “Sorry!” would probably constitute an inadequate apology. This category assesses the speakers’ control over the actual language forms used to realize the speech function, in this case referred to as a speech act (such as, “sorry,” “excuse me,” “very sorry,” “really sorry”), as well as their control over register or formality of the utterance from most intimate to most formal language.

LANDASAN KURIKULUM

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Oleh : Akhmad Sudrajat

Kurikulum merupakan inti dari bidang pendidikan dan memiliki pengaruh terhadap seluruh kegiatan pendidikan. Mengingat pentingnya kurikulum dalam pendidikan dan kehidupan manusia, maka penyusunan kurikulum tidak dapat dilakukan secara sembarangan. Penyusunan kurikulum membutuhkan landasan-landasan yang kuat, yang didasarkan pada hasil-hasil pemikiran dan penelitian yang mendalam. Penyusunan kurikulum yang tidak didasarkan pada landasan yang kuat dapat berakibat fatal terhadap kegagalan pendidikan itu sendiri. Dengan sendirinya, akan berkibat pula terhadap kegagalan proses pengembangan manusia.

Dalam hal ini, Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) mengemukakan empat landasan utama dalam pengembangan kurikulum, yaitu: (1) filosofis; (2) psikologis; (3) sosial-budaya; dan (4) ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi..Untuk lebih jelasnya, di bawah ini akan diuraikan secara ringkas keempat landasan tersebut.

1.Landasan Filosofis

Filsafat memegang peranan penting dalam pengembangan kuikulum. Sama halnya seperti dalam Filsafat Pendidikan, kita dikenalkan pada berbagai aliran filsafat, seperti : perenialisme, essensialisme, eksistesialisme, progresivisme, dan rekonstruktivisme. Dalam pengembangan kurikulum pun senantiasa berpijak pada aliran – aliran filsafat tertentu, sehingga akan mewarnai terhadap konsep dan implementasi kurikulum yang dikembangkan. Dengan merujuk kepada pemikiran Ella Yulaelawati (2003), di bawah ini diuraikan tentang isi dari-dari masing-masing aliran filsafat, kaitannya dengan pengembangan kurikulum.

a.Perenialisme lebih menekankan pada keabadian, keidealan, kebenaran dan keindahan dari pada warisan budaya dan dampak sosial tertentu. Pengetahuan dianggap lebih penting dan kurang memperhatikan kegiatan sehari-hari. Pendidikan yang menganut faham ini menekankan pada kebenaran absolut , kebenaran universal yang tidak terikat pada tempat dan waktu. Aliran ini lebih berorientasi ke masa lalu.

b.Essensialisme menekankan pentingnya pewarisan budaya dan pemberian pengetahuan dan keterampilan pada peserta didik agar dapat menjadi anggota masyarakat yang berguna. Matematika, sains dan mata pelajaran lainnya dianggap sebagai dasar-dasar substansi kurikulum yang berharga untuk hidup di masyarakat. Sama halnya dengan perenialisme, essesialisme juga lebih berorientasi pada masa lalu.

c.Eksistensialisme menekankan pada individu sebagai sumber pengetahuan tentang hidup dan makna. Untuk memahami kehidupan seseorang mesti memahami dirinya sendiri. Aliran ini mempertanyakan : bagaimana saya hidup di dunia ? Apa pengalaman itu ?

d.Progresivisme menekankan pada pentingnya melayani perbedaan individual, berpusat pada peserta didik, variasi pengalaman belajar dan proses. Progresivisme merupakan landasan bagi pengembangan belajar peserta didik aktif.

e.Rekonstruktivisme merupakan elaborasi lanjut dari aliran progresivisme. Pada rekonstruktivisme, peradaban manusia masa depan sangat ditekankan. Di samping menekankan tentang perbedaan individual seperti pada progresivisme, rekonstruktivisme lebih jauh menekankan tentang pemecahan masalah, berfikir kritis dan sejenisnya. Aliran ini akan mempertanyakan untuk apa berfikir kritis, memecahkan masalah, dan melakukan sesuatu ? Penganut aliran ini menekankan pada hasil belajar dari pada proses.

Aliran Filsafat Perenialisme, Essensialisme, Eksistensialisme merupakan aliran filsafat yang mendasari terhadap pengembangan Model Kurikulum Subjek-Akademis. Sedangkan, filsafat progresivisme memberikan dasar bagi pengembangan Model Kurikulum Pendidikan Pribadi. Sementara, filsafat rekonstruktivisme banyak diterapkan dalam pengembangan Model Kurikulum Interaksional.

Masing-masing aliran filsafat pasti memiliki kelemahan dan keunggulan tersendiri. Oleh karena itu, dalam praktek pengembangan kurikulum, penerapan aliran filsafat cenderung dilakukan secara eklektif untuk lebih mengkompromikan dan mengakomodasikan berbagai kepentingan yang terkait dengan pendidikan. Meskipun demikian saat ini, pada beberapa negara dan khususnya di Indonesia, tampaknya mulai terjadi pergeseran landasan dalam pengembangan kurikulum, yaitu dengan lebih menitikberatkan pada filsafat rekonstruktivisme.

2.Landasan Psikologis

Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) mengemukakan bahwa minimal terdapat dua bidang psikologi yang mendasari pengembangan kurikulum yaitu (1) psikologi perkembangan dan (2) psikologi belajar. Psikologi perkembangan merupakan ilmu yang mempelajari tentang perilaku individu berkenaan dengan perkembangannya. Dalam psikologi perkembangan dikaji tentang hakekat perkembangan, pentahapan perkembangan, aspek-aspek perkembangan, tugas-tugas perkembangan individu, serta hal-hal lainnya yang berhubungan perkembangan individu, yang semuanya dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan pertimbangan dan mendasari pengembangan kurikulum. Psikologi belajar merupakan ilmu yang mempelajari tentang perilaku individu dalam konteks belajar. Psikologi belajar mengkaji tentang hakekat belajar dan teori-teori belajar, serta berbagai aspek perilaku individu lainnya dalam belajar, yang semuanya dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan pertimbangan sekaligus mendasari pengembangan kurikulum.

Masih berkenaan dengan landasan psikologis, Ella Yulaelawati memaparkan teori-teori psikologi yang mendasari Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Dengan mengutip pemikiran Spencer, Ella Yulaelawati mengemukakan pengertian kompetensi bahwa kompetensi merupakan “karakteristik mendasar dari seseorang yang merupakan hubungan kausal dengan referensi kriteria yang efektif dan atau penampilan yang terbaik dalam pekerjaan pada suatu situasi“.

Selanjutnya, dikemukakan pula tentang 5 tipe kompetensi, yaitu :
a.motif; sesuatu yang dimiliki seseorang untuk berfikir secara konsisten atau keinginan untuk melakukan suatu aksi.
b.bawaan; yaitu karakteristik fisik yang merespons secara konsisten berbagai situasi atau informasi.
c.konsep diri; yaitu tingkah laku, nilai atau image seseorang;
d.pengetahuan; yaitu informasi khusus yang dimiliki seseorang; dan
e.keterampilan; yaitu kemampuan melakukan tugas secara fisik maupun mental.

Kelima kompetensi tersebut mempunyai implikasi praktis terhadap perencanaan sumber daya manusia atau pendidikan. Keterampilan dan pengetahuan cenderung lebih tampak pada permukaan ciri-ciri seseorang, sedangkan konsep diri, bawaan dan motif lebih tersembunyi dan lebih mendalam serta merupakan pusat kepribadian seseorang. Kompetensi permukaan (pengetahuan dan keterampilan) lebih mudah dikembangkan. Pelatihan merupakan hal tepat untuk menjamin kemampuan ini. Sebaliknya, kompetensi bawaan dan motif jauh lebih sulit untuk dikenali dan dikembangkan.
Dalam konteks Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi, E. Mulyasa (2002) menyoroti tentang aspek perbedaan dan karakteristik peserta didik, Dikemukakannya, bahwa sedikitnya terdapat lima perbedaan dan karakteristik peserta didik yang perlu diperhatikan dalam Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi, yaitu : (1) perbedaan tingkat kecerdasan; (2) perbedaan kreativitas; (3) perbedaan cacat fisik; (4) kebutuhan peserta didik; dan (5) pertumbuhan dan perkembangan kognitif.

3.Landasan Sosial-Budaya

Kurikulum dapat dipandang sebagai suatu rancangan pendidikan. Sebagai suatu rancangan, kurikulum menentukan pelaksanaan dan hasil pendidikan. Kita maklumi bahwa pendidikan merupakan usaha mempersiapkan peserta didik untuk terjun ke lingkungan masyarakat. Pendidikan bukan hanya untuk pendidikan semata, namun memberikan bekal pengetahuan, keterampilan serta nilai-nilai untuk hidup, bekerja dan mencapai perkembangan lebih lanjut di masyarakat.

Peserta didik berasal dari masyarakat, mendapatkan pendidikan baik formal maupun informal dalam lingkungan masyarakat dan diarahkan bagi kehidupan masyarakat pula. Kehidupan masyarakat, dengan segala karakteristik dan kekayaan budayanya menjadi landasan dan sekaligus acuan bagi pendidikan.
Dengan pendidikan, kita tidak mengharapkan muncul manusia – manusia yang menjadi terasing dari lingkungan masyarakatnya, tetapi justru melalui pendidikan diharapkan dapat lebih mengerti dan mampu membangun kehidupan masyakatnya. Oleh karena itu, tujuan, isi, maupun proses pendidikan harus disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan, kondisi, karakteristik, kekayaan dan perkembangan yang ada di masyakarakat.

Setiap lingkungan masyarakat masing-masing memiliki sistem-sosial budaya tersendiri yang mengatur pola kehidupan dan pola hubungan antar anggota masyarakat. Salah satu aspek penting dalam sistem sosial budaya adalah tatanan nilai-nilai yang mengatur cara berkehidupan dan berperilaku para warga masyarakat. Nilai-nilai tersebut dapat bersumber dari agama, budaya, politik atau segi-segi kehidupan lainnya.

Sejalan dengan perkembangan masyarakat maka nilai-nilai yang ada dalam masyarakat juga turut berkembang sehingga menuntut setiap warga masyarakat untuk melakukan perubahan dan penyesuaian terhadap tuntutan perkembangan yang terjadi di sekitar masyarakat.

Israel Scheffer (Nana Syaodih Sukamdinata, 1997) mengemukakan bahwa melalui pendidikan manusia mengenal peradaban masa lalu, turut serta dalam peradaban sekarang dan membuat peradaban masa yang akan datang.
Dengan demikian, kurikulum yang dikembangkan sudah seharusnya mempertimbangkan, merespons dan berlandaskan pada perkembangan sosial – budaya dalam suatu masyarakat, baik dalam konteks lokal, nasional maupun global.

4.Landasan Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi

Pada awalnya, ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang dimiliki manusia masih relatif sederhana, namun sejak abad pertengahan mengalami perkembangan yang pesat. Berbagai penemuan teori-teori baru terus berlangsung hingga saat ini dan dipastikan kedepannya akan terus semakin berkembang
Akal manusia telah mampu menjangkau hal-hal yang sebelumnya merupakan sesuatu yang tidak mungkin. Pada jaman dahulu kala, mungkin orang akan menganggap mustahil kalau manusia bisa menginjakkan kaki di Bulan, tetapi berkat kemajuan dalam bidang Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi pada pertengahan abad ke-20, pesawat Apollo berhasil mendarat di Bulan dan Neil Amstrong merupakan orang pertama yang berhasil menginjakkan kaki di Bulan.
Kemajuan cepat dunia dalam bidang informasi dan teknologi dalam dua dasa warsa terakhir telah berpengaruh pada peradaban manusia melebihi jangkauan pemikiran manusia sebelumnya. Pengaruh ini terlihat pada pergeseran tatanan sosial, ekonomi dan politik yang memerlukan keseimbangan baru antara nilai-nilai, pemikiran dan cara-cara kehidupan yang berlaku pada konteks global dan lokal.

Selain itu, dalam abad pengetahuan sekarang ini, diperlukan masyarakat yang berpengetahuan melalui belajar sepanjang hayat dengan standar mutu yang tinggi. Sifat pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang harus dikuasai masyarakat sangat beragam dan canggih, sehingga diperlukan kurikulum yang disertai dengan kemampuan meta-kognisi dan kompetensi untuk berfikir dan belajar bagaimana belajar (learning to learn) dalam mengakses, memilih dan menilai pengetahuan, serta mengatasi siatuasi yang ambigu dan antisipatif terhadap ketidakpastian..

Perkembangan dalam bidang Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi, terutama dalam bidang transportasi dan komunikasi telah mampu merubah tatanan kehidupan manusia. Oleh karena itu, kurikulum seyogyanya dapat mengakomodir dan mengantisipasi laju perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, sehingga peserta didik dapat mengimbangi dan sekaligus mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi untuk kemaslahatan dan kelangsungan hidup manusia.

Sumber Bacaan

Daeng Sudirwo. 2002 Otonomi Perguruan Tinggi Hubungannya dengan Otonomi Daerah. Manajerial. Vol .01. No1:72-79
Deddiknas. 2003. Standar Kompetensi Bahan Kajian; Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Jakarta: Puskur Balitbang.
________. 2003. Kegiatan Belajar Mengajar yang Efektif; Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Jakarta: Puskur Balitbang
________. 2003. Penilaian Kelas; Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Jakarta: Puskur Balitbang.
E. Mulyasa.2003. Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Konsep; Karakteristik dan Implementasi. Bandung : P.T. Remaja Rosdakarya.
_________. 2004. Implementasi Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi; Panduan Pembelajaran KBK. Bandung : P.T. Remaja Rosdakarya.
_________. 2006. Kurikulum yang Disempurnakan. Bandung : P.T. Remaja Rosdakarya
Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata. 1997. Pengembangan Kurikum; Teori dan Praktek. Bandung: P.T. Remaja Rosdakarya.
Permendiknas No. 22, 23 dan 24 Tahun 2007
Tim Pengembang MKDK Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran.2002. Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. Bandung : Jurusan Kurikulum dan Teknologi Pendidikan Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan UPI.
Uyoh Sadulloh.1994. Pengantar Filsafat Pendidikan. Bandung: P.T. Media Iptek

Pengertian Kurikulum

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Untuk mendapatkan rumusan tentang pengertian kurikulum, para ahli mengemukakan pandangan yang beragam. Dalam pandangan klasik, lebih menekankan kurikulum dipandang sebagai rencana pelajaran di suatu sekolah. Pelajaran-pelajaran dan materi apa yang harus ditempuh di sekolah, itulah kurikulum. George A. Beauchamp (1986) mengemukakan bahwa : “ A Curriculun is a written document which may contain many ingredients, but basically it is a plan for the education of pupils during their enrollment in given school”. Dalam pandangan modern, pengertian kurikulum lebih dianggap sebagai suatu pengalaman atau sesuatu yang nyata terjadi dalam proses pendidikan, seperti dikemukakan oleh Caswel dan Campbell (1935) yang mengatakan bahwa kurikulum … to be composed of all the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers. Dipertegas lagi oleh pemikiran Ronald C. Doll (1974) yang mengatakan bahwa : “ …the curriculum has changed from content of courses study and list of subject and courses to all experiences which are offered to learners under the auspices or direction of school.

Untuk mengakomodasi perbedaan pandangan tersebut, Hamid Hasan (1988) mengemukakan bahwa konsep kurikulum dapat ditinjau dalam empat dimensi, yaitu:

kurikulum sebagai suatu ide; yang dihasilkan melalui teori-teori dan penelitian, khususnya dalam bidang kurikulum dan pendidikan.
kurikulum sebagai suatu rencana tertulis, sebagai perwujudan dari kurikulum sebagai suatu ide; yang didalamnya memuat tentang tujuan, bahan, kegiatan, alat-alat, dan waktu.
kurikulum sebagai suatu kegiatan, yang merupakan pelaksanaan dari kurikulum sebagai suatu rencana tertulis; dalam bentuk praktek pembelajaran.
kurikulum sebagai suatu hasil yang merupakan konsekwensi dari kurikulum sebagai suatu kegiatan, dalam bentuk ketercapaian tujuan kurikulum yakni tercapainya perubahan perilaku atau kemampuan tertentu dari para peserta didik.

Sementara itu, Purwadi (2003) memilah pengertian kurikulum menjadi enam bagian : (1) kurikulum sebagai ide; (2) kurikulum formal berupa dokumen yang dijadikan sebagai pedoman dan panduan dalam melaksanakan kurikulum; (3) kurikulum menurut persepsi pengajar; (4) kurikulum operasional yang dilaksanakan atau dioprasional kan oleh pengajar di kelas; (5) kurikulum experience yakni kurikulum yang dialami oleh peserta didik; dan (6) kurikulum yang diperoleh dari penerapan kurikulum.

Dalam perspektif kebijakan pendidikan nasional sebagaimana dapat dilihat dalam Undang-Undang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional No. 20 Tahun 2003 menyatakan bahwa: “Kurikulum adalah seperangkat rencana dan pengaturan mengenai tujuan, isi, dan bahan pelajaran serta cara yang digunakan sebagai pedoman penyelenggaraan pembelajaran untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan tertentu”.

Daftar Bacaan Curiculum Mat Dev

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Bacaan Wajib

Beauchamp, George A. (1975). Curriculum Theory. Wilmette, illinois : The KAGG pres Miller, John P dan Seller, Wayne (1985). Curriculum : Perspective and Practic. New York : Longman

Schubert, William H (1986). Curriculum : Perspective, paradigma and Possibility. New York : MacMillan Publishing Co.

Bacaan Tambahan

Beanne, James A (ed). Toward A Coherent Curriculum. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD.

Hlebowitsh, Peter S. (1993). Radical Curriculum Theory Reconsidered. New York:Teachers Colleges Press

Lapp, Diane, et all. (1975). Teaching and learning : Philosophical, Psychological,Curricular Application. New york : Macmillan Publishing Co,inc.

Joice, Bruce et all (2000). Models of Teaching. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.

Longstreet, WS and Shane, HG. (1993). Curriculum for a New Millenium. Boston,London : Allyn and Bacon.

Oliva,P.F. (1992). Developing the curriculum. New York : Harper Collins Publishers.

Slattery, Patrick. (1995). Curriculum Development in the Postmodern Era. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Sukmadinata, Nana Sy.(2001). Pengembangan Kurikulum : Teori dan praktek. Bandung: PT Remaja Roosdakarya.

Madu Atasi Batuk

2009-06-25T07:48:00.001+07:00

Bila istirahat malam Anda terganggu karena gatal tenggorokan, jangan buru-buru meminum obat batuk. Ada pilihan obat yang lebih alami, praktis, namun tetap efektif. Madu.

Untuk mendapatkan manfaat itu, Anda tak memerlukan banyak cairan madu. Cukup gunakan 1-2 sendok teh, sesuai kebutuhan. Tambahkan seduhan teh hangat dan perasan lemon untuk efek yang lebih bagus.

Selain melegakan tenggorokan, madu juga mengandung antioksidan.

Menurut hasil penelitian terbaru, madu juga bisa memiliki efek antibakteri, sehingga bisa menjadi alternatif terapi sinusitis.

Teteskan cairan madu ke secangkir air panas. Hirup uapnya. Ini berkhasiat untuk mengurangi keluhan hidung tersumbat sekaligus menghilangkan bakteri.(Yahoo/dila)

Jagung Muda Hilangkan Bekas Jerawat

2009-06-25T07:46:00.001+07:00

Kita mengenal jagung muda sebagai bahan masakan untuk oseng-oseng. Ternyata, selain enak dimakan, jagung muda bisa juga dimanfaatkan sebagai obat alternatif menyembuhkan bintik-bintik bekas cacar atau bekas jerawat. Anda bisa membuat sendiri ramuannya.

1. Pilih jagung muda yang telah dikupas dan dibersihkan dari rambut-rambutnya, kemudian diparut.

2. Ambil daun pepaya secukupnya dan tumbuk hingga halus.

3. Campurkan parutan jagung muda dengan tumbukan daun pepaya. Aduk sampai rata.

4. Oleskan campuran tadi pada bintik-bintik jerawat atau bekas-bekas cacar yang mengganggu. Oleskan setiap hari untuk mendapatkan hasil maksimal.

Perhatian, getah pepaya bersifat korosif bagi beberapa orang yang alergi. Bila Anda ingin mencoba, pastikan kulit Anda tidak alergi getah pepaya. Jika memang kulit Anda sensitif, cukup gunakan ramuan jagung muda saja.

(Berbagai sumber/msti)

Memasak Wortel Jangan Dipotong

2009-06-25T07:40:00.000+07:00

Wortel disebut-sebut memiliki khasiat antikanker, karena mengandung suatu zat yang disebut Falcarinol. Selain obat kanker, wortel juga dipercaya bermanfaat untuk membersihkan dan menguatkan hati sehingga bisa meningkatkan semua fungsi sistem tubuh. Namun semua khasiat itu bisa melemah bila wortel tidak diolah dengan cara yang benar.

Sekelompok peneliti dari Newcastle, Inggris baru-baru ini menyebutkan cara memasak yang benar adalah dengan tidak memotong wortel kecil-kecil. Dr Kirsten Brandt, ketua tim peneliti itu mengatakan, jika dilakukan pemotongan maka luas permukaan wortel akan meningkat. Akibatnya, akan semakin banyak kandungan gizi terlarut dalam air selama proses memasak.

Selain karena alasan mempertahankan kandungan gizi, wortel yang dimasak tanpa dipotong juga akan memberikan rasa yang lebih nikmat. "Itu karena kandungan gula bertahan dan terkunci dalam wortel," ujar Brandt seperti dikutip Reuters.

Kesimpulan tersebut berdasar studi yang baru-baru ini dilakukan terhadap 100 orang untuk membandingkan rasa antara wortel yang dimasak dengan cara dipotong dan wortel yang dimasak menyeluruh. Hasilnya, 80% peserta penelitian menyatakan rasa dalam wortel yang tidak dipotong lebih lezat.(AF/dila)

Multimedia Teaching

2009-05-23T18:25:00.002+07:00

Please Use the following link to improve your capability in multimedia teaching

Alan Levine, Providing structured multimedia learning environments—Mosaic and the Internet, Paper presented at the Association for Applied Interactive Multimedia Conference, 1994, Charleston, South Carolina. Available at: http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/aaim/paper.htmlLink to site established with permission.
The Web Developer's Virtual Library, Multimedia Mix. Available at: http://WDVL.com/Multimedia/Permission to link granted.

Daftar Makanan & Minuman Bermelamin

2008-12-03T07:37:00.001+07:00

Berikut daftar produk makanan dan minuman yang mengandung susu bermelanin dari Cina, dengan temuan-temuan ini diharapkan masyarakat lebih bijaksini dan bijaksana dalam membeli makanan bagi anaknya.
Jinwel Yougoo, susu fermentasi rasa jeruk. Jinwel Yougoo aneka buah; Jinwel Yougoo tanpa rasa; Guozhen, susu bubuk full cream; Meiji Indoeskrim Gold Monas rasa cokelat; Meiji Indoeskrim Gold Monas rasa vanila; Oreo Stick Wafer.Kemudian, Oreo Coklat Sandwich Cookies, M&M’s kembang gula cokelat susu, Snicker’s (Biskuit-Nougat lapis cokelat), Dove Choc kembang gula cokelat, Dove Choc,Natural Choice yoghurt flavoured ice bar, Yili Bean Club matcha red bean ice bar, Yili Bean club red bean ice bar, Yili Prestige Chocliz, dan Yili Chestnut ice bar.
Selain itu, produk Nestle Dairy Farm UHT pure milk, Yili High Calcium low fat milk beverage, Yili high calcium milk beverage,Yili pure milk 205 ml,Yili pure milk 1 liter, Dutch Lady Strawberry flavoured milk, White Rabbit creamy candy,dan Yili Choice dairy frozen yoghurt bar (kembang gula)

Are Women More Polite Than Men?

2008-10-25T06:42:00.000+07:00

Politeness is defined by the concern for the feelings of others. From Nancy Bonvillain's "Language, Culture, and Communication" she notes that, "women typically use more polite speech than do men, characterized by a high frequency of honorific (showing respect for the person to whom you are talking to, formal stylistic markers), and softening devices such as hedges and questions."
Sociolinguists try to explain why there is a greater frequency of the use of polite speech from women than from men. In our society it is socially acceptable for a man to be forward and direct his assertiveness to control the actions of others. However, society has devalued these speech patterns when it is utilized by women. From historical recurrence, it has appeared that women have had a secondary role in society relative to that of the male. Therefore, it has been (historically) expected from a women to "act like a lady" and "respect those around you." It reflects the role of the inferior status being expected to respect the superior. In Frank and Anshen's "Language and the Sexes", they note that boys, "are permitted, even encouraged, to talk rough, cultivate a deep "masculine" voice and, if they violate the norms of correct usage or of polite speech, well "boys will be boys," although, peculiarly, it is much less common that "girls will be girls" Fortunately, these roles are becoming more of a stereotype and less of a reality. However, the trend of expected polite speech from the female continues to remain. This is a prime example of how society plays an important part on the social function of the language.

Good Leaders Are Ignorant

2008-10-25T06:26:00.003+07:00

In other words, good leaders empower others to solve their own problems and process their own issues. As leaders, it's not our job to fix anyone or to have any solutions. Our job is to help team members expand the horizons of their awareness, and to facilitate their taking responsibility for their actions and reactions.

Yet when we're in front of the room facilitating a group or leading a teleconference, it's sometimes difficult to remember that just because we're leading, it doesn't mean that we have to be an authority on the subject at hand. In fact, the amount of brilliance unleashed in your participants may depend on how well you let go of your need to have all the answers.

If we let go of control and allow others to lead, (that's a huge "if"), we will see people more engaged, having more fun, and achieving greater results. It will also take a huge burden off us as leaders, because now we will not need to know everything.

Example You're facilitating a group of people focused on accountability issues. One member of the group throws an impossible situation at you. You have no idea how to solve the problem presented. You are really stumped and you don't know how to respond. If you begin thinking, "Wow, I'm supposed to be the expert sage on accountability here. I need to come up with something brilliant, or change the subject pronto!" Then you'll probably get real uptight and offer little value to your participants. But if you decide instead to just admit what's going on and say for instance, "Hey. You've really stumped me with this one. I really don't know what to say. What does this bring up for the rest of you in the group?" You will have actually increased your level of credibility to the group by being honest. You will have empowered the group by seeking their wisdom and insights on the issue. Further, you'll quite possibly get a more balanced perspective on the issue by drawing on everyone's life experience.

Pidgin and Creole

2008-09-19T21:15:00.001+07:00

A simplified language derived from two or more languages is called a pidgin. It is a contact language developed and used by people who do not share a common language in a given geographical area. It is used in a limited way and the structure is very simplistic. Since they serve a single simplistic purpose, they usually die out. However, if the pidgin is used long enough, it begins to evolve into a more rich language with a more complex structure and richer vocabulary. Once the pidgin has evolved and has acquired native speakers ( the children learn the pidgin as their first language), it is then called a Creole. An example of this is the Creole above from Papua New Guinea, Tok Pisin, which has become a National language.
Reasons for the development of Pidgins In the nineteenth century, when slaves from Africa were brought over to North America to work on the plantations, they were separated from the people of their community and mixed with people of various other communities, therefore they were unable to communicate with each other. The strategy behind this was so they couldn't come up with a plot to escape back to their land. Therefore, in order to finally communicate with their peers on the plantations, and with their bosses, they needed to form a language in which they could communicate. Pidgins also arose because of colonization. Prominent languages such as French, Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Dutch were the languages of the coloni zers. They traveled, and set up ports in coastal towns where shipping and trading routes were accessible.
There is always a dominant language which contributes most of the vocabulary of the pidgin, this is called the superstrate language. The superstrate language from the Papua New Guinea Creole example above is English. The other minority languages that contribute to the pidgin are called the substrate languages.
In the United States, there is a very well known Creole, Louisiana Creole, which is derived from French and African Languages. You most likely have heard of "Cajun" which is a developed dialect of this Creole. (read for detail on Janet Holmes, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics)

Topic on Management of Language Teaching

2008-09-16T05:46:00.006+07:00

Introduction Management.
Vision, mission on Social and government organization.
Entrepreneurship.
Against perishable organization.
Total Quality Management in an organization: the change of mind.
Midterm exam.
Competitive strength in educational organization.
Applying TQM in University level.
Organizational Management of Change.
Environmental business etiquette.
Model Analysis.
Final Exam.

References:

Bank, John, 1992. The Essence of Total Quality Management. New York: Prentice Hall.
Drucker, Peter F, 1982. The Practice of Management. Bunggay. Suffolk: Pan Book.
Kao, John J., 1988. Entrepreneurship, Creativity & Organization. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Koontz, Harold and Heinz Weihrich, 1998. Management. New York:McGraw-Hill.
Middlehurst, Robin, 1992. Quality: An Organizing Principle for Higher Education. Higher Education Quaterly. 46:1
Miner, John B., 1996. The 4 Routers to Entrepreneurial Success, San Francisco: Berret-Koehler Publisher.
Nanus, Burt, 1992. Visionary Leadership, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Porter, Michael E., 1980. Competitive Strategy. New York: The Free Press.
Shefsky, Liyod E., 1992. Entrepreneurs are made, not born, New York: McGraw Hill.
Welford, Richard. 1996. Corporate Environment Management, London: Earthscan.

Topic on Sociolinguistic

2008-09-16T05:24:00.004+07:00

Scope of sociolinguistics (applied linguistic terapan, Whatis sociolinguistics).
Language variation; Restricted code, elaborated code; Idiolect, regional,& social dialect, register, styles; Macro &micro sociolinguistics.
Regional dan social dialect; (riset on regional and social dialect)
Speech act; Locution, illocution, perlocution; Categories of speech act.
Comcept of language and culture; Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
Concept of language class dan social class; Unstandard-standard language; Social stratification; Bernstein’s language variation.
Language in term of sex and politeness; Riset on sex and language politeness.
Code switching, code mixing, borrowing; (riset on related topics).
Concept on bilingualism and diglosia (concept and riset on bilingualism and diglosia).
Concept on language change; Riset and example on language change; pidgin and creole; (the difference, processes and place among them in the sentence).
Concept on national languages and language planning; (research example).
Reasearch on Sociolinguistic; (kinds of analysis)

Reference

Chambers, J.K. 1995. Sociolinguistic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Holmes, Janet.1992. An introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Longman
Romaine, Suzanne. 1996. Bilingualism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Ltd.
Wardaugh Ronald. 1986. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Inc.

Genre

2008-09-07T11:15:00.003+07:00

Genre is devided into:

1. Spoof
2. Recounts
3. Reports
4. Analytical exposition
5. News items
6. Anecdote
7. Narrative
8. Procedure
9. Description
10. Hortatory exposition
11. Explanation
12. Discussion
13. Review

A. Spoof
To retell an event with a humorous twist (variation)

Schematic structure:
1. Orientation: sets the scene
2. Events : tell what happened
3. Twist : Provide the punch-line

Significant lexicogrammatical features:
1. Focus on individual participants.
2. Use of material Processes.
3. Circumstances of time and places.
4. Use of past tense.

B. Recounts
To retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining

Schematic structure:
1. Orientation: Provide the setting and introduces the participants.
2. Events : Tell what happened, in what sequence.
3. Re-orientation: Optional - closure of events.

Lexicogrammatical feature:
1. Focus on specific participants.
2. Use of material Processes. (action verb)
3. Circumstances of time and places. (Adverb: time and place)
4. Use of past tense.Focused on temporal sequence. (series of event)

C. REPORT
To describe the way things are, with reference to a range of natural, man made and social phenomena in our environment.

Schematic structure:
a. General Classification:
Tells what the phenomenon under discussion is.
b. Description:
Tells what the phenomenon under discussion is like in terms of:
- Parts (and their function)
- Qualities
- Habits/behaviors or 'use' if non-natural

Lexicogrammatical features:
1. Focus on Generic Participants (group of things)
2. Use of simple present tense (unless Extinct)
3. No temporal sequence
4. Use of Relation Processes to state what is and that which it is.

D. ANALYTICAL EXPOSITION
To persuade the reader or listener that something is the case

Schematic structure:
a. Thesis:
Position: Introduce topic and indicates writer's position.
Preview: Outlines the main arguments to be presented.
b. Argument:
Point: Restates main argument outlined in preview
Elaboration: Develops and supports each point/argument
c. Reiteration:
Restate writer's position

Significant grammatical feature:
1. Focus on generic human and non-human participants.
2. Use of simple present tense.
3. Use of Relational Processes.
4. Use of internal conjunction to stage argument.
5. Reasoning through Causal Conjunction or Nominalization.

LANGUAGE VARIATION (Sociolinguistic Element)

2008-09-01T20:30:00.006+07:00

Until this point, we have essentially been considering language as a formal system that can be profitably studied independently from the people who use it. This type of approach is often referred to in the field as the are of "formal" linguistics. People use the term "formal" because such investigation revolves around constructing formal models that allow us to understand how various subparts or modules of the linguistic grammar function. These subparts or modules consist of the areas that we have been studying all semester, such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.
There is, however, a lot more to understanding language than focusing on these core theoretical areas. If we can gain insight into how language works by studying its formal grammatical properties, we must also realize that language as a "thing" to be studied is necessarily a kind of simplification, because language isn't a "thing" external to human beings, but rather, something that makes up a part of who we are.
What I want to stress here is that language must also be profitably studied in its social context. In so doing, we learn both about language and about ourselves, the people who use it, live with it, and live in it. Sociolinguistics, then, as the name implies, is the study of language in human society. We'll focus here on a major aspect of sociolinguistic research in the past decades, an area generally referred to as language variation. As its own name implies, language variation focuses on how language varies in different contexts, where context refers to things like ethnicity, social class, sex, geography, age, and a number of other factors.

Language Variation

Before we review various aspects of language variation in more detail, I want to make sure we've got some basic terms and concepts down. So, here goes...

SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

Internal Variation: the property of languages having different ways of expressing the same meaning. Importantly, this refers to within language, not across language, differences. An example of internal variation in English is "ask" vs. "aks".
Language variety: This is a general term that may be used at a number of levels. So, we can use the term to distinguish between English and French, but we can also use the term to distinguish between two varieties of English, such as New York City English vs. Appalachian English.
Dialect: This is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is the collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic) that make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language.

COMMON SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDING

1) DIALECT is NOT a negative term for linguists. . Often times, for example, we hear people refer to non-standard varieties of English as "dialects", usually to say something bad about the non-standard variety (and thus about the people who speak it). This happened quite a bit during last year's ebonics controversy. But, the term dialect refers to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition, we all speak a dialect of our native language.
2) DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent. Accent is only a part of dialectal variation. Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents alone identify people as non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to think that it's always the "other" people that have "an accent". So, what is "accent"?
3) ACCENT: This term refers to phonological variation, i.e. variation in pronunciation Thus, if we talk about a Southern Accent, we're talking about a generalized property of English pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular phonological properties. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a broader term encompassing syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as well.
A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent. This is not an exercise in political correctness, by the way. It is a fact.
In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent.

Idiolect: Another term that we must be familiar with is idiolect. "What's an idiolect?" you ask, on the edge of your seat. An idiolect is simply the technical term we use to refer to the variety of language spoken by each individual speaker of the language. Just as there is variation among groups of speakers of a language, there is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a language speak identically. Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that language. Each thus speaks her or his own idiolect.

A Snapshot of "The Big Picture":

A language, say English, is really a collection of dialects.
A dialect is a particular variety of a language that differs noticeably from the variety or varieties of the same language spoken by another group or groups of people.
Dialects themselves are collections of idiolects (and thus so are languages).

Some Issues that complicate the "Big Picture" a bit

While the big picture is relatively simple, the world is a fuzzy and complex place. How do we know where one dialect begins and another ends? How do we even know if two language varieties are dialects of the same language or are dialects of different languages altogether? Let's set aside the first question for a moment, and address the second.
Linguists use a particular criterion to address the issue of how to determine whether two dialects are varieties of the same language or not. What we use is the criterion of mutual intelligibility. That is, if speakers of the two dialects can converse fluently with one another, although they recognize themselves to be speaking different varieties of the language, then we are looking at two dialects of the same language.
Many of you are speakers of "Southern" English (I use quotes because it is actually a BIG oversimplification to treat "Southern English" as a monolithic dialect), while I speak something akin to so-called standard English. (Though I grew up in the New York City metropolitan area, I do not have many of the linguistic properties in my dialect that are usually associated with that region.) Anyway, you can understand me in lecture, and I can understand you when you ask questions or come to talk to me in office hour. The point, to belabor the obvious, is that such communication is possible because although we may speak different dialects of English, the differences are not so great as to prevent us from understanding one another.
Regarding the issue of different languages, clearly there are cases where no one is going to wonder whether two speakers are speaking dialects of one language or whether they are speakers of different languages. So, if I come in and lecture to you in Spanish, I doubt that you'll scratch your heads and say, "Gee, is this a variety of English or is it something else?" But, there are many situations where the dividing line is far less clear.
There are a number of reasons why things get tricky, both linguistic and non-linguistic. A major linguistic complication comes in the form of what we call a dialect continuum. This is a situation in which there are a number of contiguous dialects that are closely related but that are not all mutually intelligible.

What's a dialect continuum?

To simplify somewhat, think of it this way. Imagine we've got ten dialects (1-10) in a row:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Now, imagine that each dialect is highly similar to its immediately adjacent neighbors, but that as we move farther away the similarities become fewer and fewer. So, 1 is very similar to 2, less similar to 3, even less similar to 4, and by the time we get to 8, 9 or 10, 1 is no longer mutually intelligible with these. By the criterion of mutual intelligibility, we'd want to thus say that 1 and 10 belong to different languages. That's fine. But what do we do about 5, which may be mutually intelligible with both 1 and 10? Which language does 5 belong to? How many different languages are we talking about here?

An example of the dialect continuum problem

An interesting example that I have first hand experience with is the case of the Mixtec languages in Mexico. There are roughly 300,000 Mixtec speakers in Mexico, primarily spread out in the state of Oaxaca. Mixtec is an indigenous language that is a member of a larger family called the Otomanguean language family. But, Mixtec itself is actually composed of a number of mutually unintelligible dialects. Estimates of how many such dialects there are vary, but a fairly trustworthy study puts the number at 22. Perhaps more meaningful than the number 22, however, is the observation that mutual intelligibility among Mixtecs is best measured in terms of walking distance. Specifically, it has been reported that the geographical extension of mutual intelligibility is roughly the equivalent of two days walking from any given Mixtec village. (Mixtecs, as I've told you, are incredibly hearty walkers in general!) This is a clear case of a dialect continuum similar to our case of 1-10 above, except that all the Mixtecs obviously aren't all lined up in a row.
In fact, what more sophisticated studies of mutual intelligibility try to do is quantify in some fashion over the issue of intelligibility. That is, rather than take mutual intelligibility to be an all or nothing issue, they try to break the issue down into percentages so that we might be able to distinguish between degrees of intelligibility. As a case in point, the particular variety of Mixtec that I have worked on is among the most isolated, and has been reported to only have a 25% intelligibility level with the closest dialect to it.
What you should take away from this discussion is that while the criterion of mutual intelligibility is a good and useful criterion for determining whether two varieties of a language are dialects of the same language or not, dialects often form a continuum which makes finding an exact dividing point between languages quite difficult, if not downright impossible.

Nonlinguistic Factors and the dialect vs. language issue

Non-linguistic factors also often complicate matters further. A famous linguists once said, "A language is a dialect with an army and a navy." What he was calling attention to were the political factors involved in how people determine just what a language is. A good, though very depressing, example of this can be found in the former Yugoslavia. The majority language in the former Yugoslavia was called Serbo-Croatian. This language was spoken throughout the country (Albanian and Macedonian, for example, were also spoken in parts of Yugoslavia, so Serbo-Croatian wasn't the only language.) Anyway, now that Croatia has broken off into its own independent state, the language of Croatia is officially Croatian, and the language now spoken in what is still called Yugoslavia is officially called Serbian. These are now officially two completely different languages, due to the fact that there is a political border between Croatia and Serbia.
From the point of view of the linguist, of course, they are still a single language, and the differences between them are examples of dialectal variation on a par with, say, New York vs. Boston English. But, the animosity between Serbs and Croats makes them refuse to admit that they are speaking the same language (even though they know they are and can, of course, understand one another!).
An example of politics working in the other direction is the case of China. There are quite a few languages spoken in China, but the Chinese government refers to them all as dialects of Chinese. Two of these so-called dialects are Cantonese and Mandarin. Cantonese is spoken in part of Southern China (it's spoken in Shanghai), while Mandarin is spoken in the north (it's the language spoken in Beijing). Though these two languages are both historically related, they are NOT mutually intelligible. Yet the Chinese refer to them as dialects of a single language as a means of enforcing a vision of cultural and political unity. Imagine if the Europeans decided that they were all going to call Spanish, French, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Provencal dialects of a single language, Romance, and you start to get the picture. Or imagine that we decide that English, Dutch, and German are all dialects of a single German language. Yes, these languages ARE historically related, but from the point of view of the linguist, their non-mutual intelligibility makes them different languages, not dialects of a single present day language.

Speech Communities

A speech community is a group of people who speak a common dialect. Linguists working on language variation often characterize speech communities in terms of extra-linguistic factors, i.e. along ethnic or geographical lines. While this can be useful and can shed light on the hows and whys of dialect variation, it is important to note that the linguists who do this KNOW that there is really no such thing as a pure dialect spoken only by a particular ethnic group or by people from just one perfectly definable region. In large part, people are in contact with one another and with many varieties of a language.
For example, your book Language Files gives you an example of speech from an older man with many well known characteristics of Appalachian English:
1) I used to could read. (double modal)
2) I ain't no girl now. (multiple negation)
3) He has a broken back ____ was never set. ("that" deletion)
4) Put some bakin' sody on it. (sody instead of soda)
5) I fell upside of the building. (lexical substitution--upside of for against the side of)

What they point out, though, is that the speaker is a native of Southern Ohio, not actually a native of Appalachia. And his speech is affected by factors such as age, sex, and socio-economic status.
To cite another simple example, linguists study African American English (most recently called ebonics), but there is no assumption here that ALL African Americans speak this dialect. Nor is there an assumption that this dialect is limited to African Americans only. It does happen to be true, however, that most speakers of this dialect are African Americans.
So, big picture again. A dialect is a variety of a language. A speech community is the group of people who speak the dialect. What makes a particular group of people speak a particular dialect has to do with a number of factors which may play a more or less significant role in any particular case. These include socio-economic status, ethnicity, sex, and geographical location.

Kinds of Variation

Now we're ready to get down to particular aspects of language variation. Returning to our grammatical modules, we can see that carefully examining language variation requires both attention to grammar and attention to society. What do I mean by this? Simply, that if we identify a particular dialect, our understanding of how that dialect works requires an understanding of the phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of that dialect, as well as an understanding of who speaks it. So, here we'll cover grammatical aspects of language variation.

Phonetic Variation
Your textbook, Language Files, is actually a bit unclear regarding the difference between phonological and phonetic variation.
Though it doesn't come out and say so specifically, your book treats phonetic variation as variation in pronunciation that don't affect the phonemic level of the grammar. Two examples are provided. Here's the case of New York alveolar consonants.
In some New York City dialects, alveolar consonants are systematically produced with contact between the tongue tip and the upper teeth (i.e. they are dento-alveolar), while in so-called standard dialects, the alveolars are not dental. So, in New York English, the [t] word "two" is produced with contact between the tongue tip and the teeth. In so-called standard English, this isn't the case. Alveolar consonants are not always realized as dentals.
So, why is this a case of phonetic variation? The answer is basically this. At the phonemic level, there is really no difference between NY English and standard English. Both have the exact same set of alveolar consonant PHONEMES. What's different is that the place of articulation differs ever so slightly between the two dialects. NY English speakers always produce their alveolar consonants with contact between the tongue tip and the upper front teeth. Standard English speakers only do this sometimes, as in words like [tenth].
In short, the difference is not found at the phoneme level but rather at the allophone level. This is what your book is referring to by this example of phonetic variation between NY English and standard American English.

Phonological Variation
Now let's turn to the case of phonological variation. This situation is a little different. Here, the variation in pronunciation represents variation at the level of the phoneme or at the level of phonotactic constraints on things like syllable shape. How so? The book gives a few useful examples. Here's one:
I have a difference in my dialect between the vowel in the word "caught" and the vowel in the word "cot". For me, these are a minimal pair. The first, "caught" has a lax, mid, rounded, back vowel (its phonetic symbol is a backwards "c"), while the latter is the low, back, unrounded vowel [a]. In a few dialects of American English, this difference has been neutralized, aka lost. That is, these two different phonemes have merged. Specifically, people who speak these dialects pronounce the vowel in "caught" as an [a]: [kat], thus rendering the two words "caught" and "cot" homophonous.

Why is this a case of phonological and not phonetic variation? Because, the result of this kind of variation is the loss of a phonological contrast. Whereas in my dialect these vowels are allophones of two different phonemes, the dialects that don't have this difference have lost a contrast. Another way of putting this is to say that the dialect that has lost the backwards "c" vowel that I still have in my dialect, has one less vowel phoneme than my dialect has. What's most important here is that we understand that the difference is relevant at the level of the phoneme. This is what your book classifies as an example of phonological variation.
So, the big picture is that the variation means that the phoneme system is different in the two varieties. In the case of NY alveolars above, the allophones of the alveolar consonant phonemes are different, but both dialects still have the same alveolar phonemes in the same words. Here's another interesting example:

In some African American dialects, the sequences Cr and Cl (C stands for consonant) are prohibited in unstressed syllables. So, "professor" is "pofessor". This is a case of phonological variation because in SAE, the word professor has an /r/ as the second phoneme of the word, but in AAE, /r/ is simply not allowed to appear in this position.

This is a case of phonological variation because we are able to identify a particular difference in phonotactics between AAE and SAE. AAE doesn't allow Cl and Cr clusters, while SAE does. This literally means that there is a significant difference in the phonological rules of the two dialects Specifically, the inventory of possible syllable types differs from one to the other.

Morphological Variation
Examples of morphological variation should be fairly easy for you to identify. Your book notes the case of northern England and Southern Wales, where the -s suffix is used as a general present tense marker. In many other dialects of English, -s is reserved for marking the present tense in third person singular forms only.
I likes him.
We walks all the time.

Another example comes from Appalachian English, which has a number of past tense forms that are non-standard. "Et" for "ate", "hEt" for "heated". These are all examples of morphological variation.

Syntactic Variation
As the name suggests, syntactic variation involves syntactic differences among dialects. Keeping close to home, it is common in many Southern dialects to find the word "done" used as an auxiliary, as in "she done already told you" or "I done finished a while ago." In SAE, this isn't the case. And, in fact, many times people who want to imitate Southern American English speech often pick up on this rather salient property.

Double modals (combinations of auxiliaries) are also common across parts of the South. Examples are: "I might could do it" or "They useta could do it" or "He might would if you asked him nice enough."

These are examples of syntactic variation. Another famous example is the use of so-called double negatives, as in "I didn't see nobody."

Semantic Variation
Often times, what people studying variation talk about when they discuss semantic variation is the different meanings that particular words have from dialect to dialect, or the different words that are used for the same thing in different dialects. We might more accurately refer to this as the study of lexical semantic variation. That's a fancy way of saying that we are studying variation in the meanings of words.
So, an example of a single word meaning different things is the compound "knocked up". In England it means 'rouse from sleep'. Here in the States it means "to make pregnant".
Examples of different words being used for the same thing also abound. I remember when I first went to college that someone asked me if I liked frappes. I literally had no idea what he was talking about. It turns out that frappe is a common term for "milk shake" in New England. Obviously, it wasn't a common term in the New York area that I was from.
Other examples are words like "soda". For me, this is a general term for soft drink. For speakers of other dialects, "soda" may mean seltzer water or club soda only. In some of these dialects, the general term for soft drink is "pop". In yet other dialects, the general term is "coke", while for me, "coke" refers to only a specific brand of cola.
By the way, when you go to the store, what do you get your groceries in? A bag or a sack? In my dialect, it's a bag. But when I lived in Montana, I quickly learned that you get your groceries there in a sack.

Language and Socioeconomic Status

One of the most persistent and pernicious misunderstandings of the concept dialect revolves around the problem of standard vs. nonstandard varieties of a language. Before I discuss this problem in a bit more detail, let's make sure the big picture is clear. Specifically, let's break the problem down into two categories: the WRONG view, and the RIGHT view. (I know, I know, I'm being absolutist here. But the point is important to make, and this issue is important to address, so why not be direct about it.)

THE WRONG VIEW

A language is composed of a "standard" dialect from which all of the other non-standard dialects emerge.
The standard dialect is the "correct" way to speak the language.
The other dialects represent erroneous or inferior ways of speaking the language.
The non-standard language is more complex, more logical, more expressive than the non-standard dialects.
Non-standard dialects are a product of "lazy" speech.

THE RIGHT VIEW

Languages have various dialects.
There are actually a range of varieties that people consider to be standard. So, Bill Clinton speaks the "standard" and so do I, but my dialect is clearly NOT the same as Clinton's.
What is considered standard is associated with prestige, a non-linguistic factor.
From a linguistic standpoint, what is considered standard has NOTHING to do with correctness or superiority.
From a linguistic standpoint, ALL DIALECTS are equally correct, equally expressive, equally complex, equally logical and so forth. That is, the term non-standard dialect means just that, not the standard dialect. It DOES NOT MEAN inferior or sub-standard.
Non-standard dialects are not simply offshoots from the standard. That is, don't think of non-standard dialects simply as daughters of some standard variety. This is important, because when we compare non-standard and standard dialects people tend to think that the properties of the non-standard have evolved out of the standard. This is not the case. Non-standard and standard dialects taken together simply make up the range of dialects that constitute a language.

Evidence for the RIGHT VIEW

What kinds of evidence might we look for to support these claims? Here are some ideas:

If there is a correct way to speak a language, and that correct way is reflected in the standard, then we predict that through time the standard will be unchanging with respect to this "right" way of doing things.

But, time and time again, we see that this is simply not the case. Language Files provides a simple example regarding multiple negation. In current standard American English, multiple negation structures are non-standard and people who use them are often ridiculed, e.g. "I don't want no help". We saw an example of this in the video that we watched in class. An upper class Southern woman ridiculed what she referred to as uneducated speech by imitating one speaker's use of multiple negation (something about "not running into no stump and not wanting to make no hole in the bottom of a boat").
In fact, some particularly pedantic types argue that two negatives actually cancel each other out logically. As a consequence, they suggest that anyone who says "I don't want no help" is actually requesting aid. Clearly, there is often an attempt to demean speakers who use double or other multiple negative constructions.
Well, let's be pedantic ourselves, just for fun, by pointing out that in Chaucer's time, multiple negation WAS the norm. Language Files quotes a passage from the General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales:
He never yet no villany not said
In all his life to no kind of creature

By my count, there are FOUR (count 'em) negations in this sentence: "never" , "no", "not", and "no". According to the rules of logic, since this is an even number of negations, I suppose a paraphrase should have them all canceling each other out, so the passage should mean something like: "He always said bad things to all creatures". Of course, we KNOW that it doesn't mean that. Even with its four negations, we have a clear sense that it means that "He never said anything bad to anyone".
So, in our time, multiple negation is non-standard. Big deal. In Chaucer's time, it was standard. In fact, multiple negation is highly common across languages the world over. All that stuff about multiple negations canceling each other out is basically bunk. Sure, we can use multiple negation to this effect, but intonation plays a big role when we do so. So, I can say, "I didn't say I saw nobody" to suggest that I did see somebody. But note that if you do this, your intonation is not that of a normal declarative. In fact, you put extra emphasis on the word "nobody" so as to call the listener's attention to the fact that you are playing with the double negative. Essentially, you are being coy.
Anyway, the bottom line here is that there is nothing inherently more or less correct about multiple negation. Thus, whether it is standard or not in contemporary English has nothing to do with correctness or logical purity. It has to do with factors that are non-linguistic. Specifically, our objections to multiple negation tell us more about our attitudes towards the people who use it than about the adequacy or inadequacy of multiple negation itself.
What other kinds of things should be true if the views above are correct?

Well, if we're right, we might expect to find cases of language change in progress that show how arbitrary the notions of standard are.

Here is a nice example that shows just this point. In contemporary American English, we have a couple of changes that are presently taking place. Both involve "misuse" of pronouns. Note that I put quotes around "misuse" to point out that both involve uses that depart from the traditional prescriptive standard. Interestingly, one of these is generally accepted, while the other is considered "incorrect". Here is an example of each:

John and me went bowling last Friday night.
Mary gave the books to John and I.

Does one of these seem somehow "worse" to you. My intuition, at least, is that the first one sounds worse than the second one. In fact, according to old time grammar rules, both are equally wrong. Each involves a misuse of a pronoun. "Me", as an object pronoun, is should not be used as a subject. In the second case, "I", as a subject pronoun, should not be used as the object of the verb "gave". If both are equally wrong, why does the second one not sound as wrong as the first (if this is the case for you)? One explanation is that highly educated people say the second one all the time, but tend not to say the first one as often. It's not the case that either one is actually better (or worse). They both reflect ongoing changes in how we use pronouns in English. As an aside, it is perhaps not surprising that such changes should happen. The pronoun system is a relic of a case system that has been lost in the rest of the language, so losing the old case driven uses of the pronouns isn't shocking. But, what is important here, is that our judgments about which of the two sentences sounds better or more standard may have more to do with the speakers than what's actually said.
Here's another example of the arbitrariness of what constitutes the standard.
An even more glaring example can be found in the Spanish spoken in Spain. In so-called standard peninsular Spanish, there's a phonemic difference between the voiceless interdental ("th") sound and [s], so we find pairs of words like: casa (pronounced kasa) and caza (pronounced katha). All over the Americas, this difference has been lost, and both words are pronounced the same, with an [s] and not a [th]. Both varieties are considered "standard" or "acceptable" by the Spanish Royal Academy. In parts of Spain, however, there is another dialect spoken in the southern part of the country in which both words are also pronounced the same. In this case, however, both are pronounced as [katha]. In this dialect, rather than all cases of [th] in the standard being realized as [s], all interdental fricatives and [s] are realized as [th]. I hope you can see that essentially the same process has occurred from a phonological point of view. In one dialect (or set of dialects), there is no /th/ phoneme, only /s/. In another, there is no /s/ phoneme, only the interdental /th/. BUT, only one of the dialects is accepted as falling into the standard. The southern dialect is considered "unacceptable" by the royal academy and is frequently ridiculed. Why? Well, the people who speak the "unacceptable" dialect are largely poor and uneducated. Again, the message, it's not what is said, it's who says it! There is NOTHING inherently better about either dialect. In fact, it is only attitudes towards speakers that result in one falling into the sphere of acceptable varieties while the other remains outside.
Let's provide another argument along these lines.
If we are right above then we should expect to see the very same linguistic features be standard in one place but non-standard in another.

This is, in fact, simple to show. English, as we all know, has an American Standard and a British standard. In American English, "r" dropping is considered non-standard. Think about all the "r" dropping you saw in the video of the non-prestige dialect speakers from Boston. Stereotypical New Yorkese also has "r" dropping as a feature and "r" dropping is often taken as a sign of lack of education and social status. By contrast, in standard British English, "r" dropping is a prestige feature. Imitate a Brit saying "bird" or the word "car" and you'll see that the [r] is dropped. So, here you have "r" dropping as a marker of non-standard American English but standard British English. This should be surprising to anyone who thinks that what is found in the standard is inherently better. It should come as no surprise to someone who thinks that the linguistic differences between standard and non-standard dialects are simply that, differences.
One more point here:
If we are correct in our RIGHT VIEW /WRONG VIEW statements above, then we should expect that today's standard might be tomorrow's non-standard. And this happens all the time. I've already discussed above the example of multiple negation in Middle English, but closer to home, it is useful to remember that "r" drop in New York English was a marker of prestige around the turn of the last century. Now, it marks the opposite. What gives? People. What is standard is not a matter of "better" from a linguistic point of view. What is standard is dictated by attitudes in the society towards particular groups of people who speak in particular ways.

Big Picture Time Again

Once we recognize the arbitrary nature of what constitutes a standard variety of a language, it is simply impossible to maintain that any dialect is "superior" to any other. Different? Yes. Better? Worse? Never.

Prestige
If what makes a language standard or non-standard is not a linguistic issue, what is the difference? Of course, the reality of the situation is that the situation is VERY complex. There are many factors that come into play. But, it is important to note that dialects are intimately related to the notion of prestige within a society. Basically, the standard dialect is the dialect that is associated with prestige in the society at large. Does this mean that all prestigious people MUST speak the standard? No. But an overwhelming number do. That's why we have no trouble associating the standard with prestige. (Just what constitutes prestige is bundled up in a number of issues that are beyond the scope of this review sheet!)
This raises an apparently simple question. If the standard confers prestige on its speakers, why doesn't everyone just learn the standard? Well, what looks simple isn't always so simple. One thing is this. The question assumes that everyone is WELCOME to speak the standard. As the case of NY "r" dropping might suggest, when lots of people in NY starting dropping their r's, the prestige group put their "r's" back in. And, if we know anything about dialects at this point, we should know that people's attitudes towards dialects tells us more about their attitudes towards the speakers of those dialects.
Also, think about how you feel about your own dialect. Even if you speak a non-standard variety, do you want to be told by someone else that the way you speak is "wrong" or inadequate and that YOU should change? Dialects are intimately wound up with identity and with a sense of community. It is not realistic to pretend that this is not the case and that people can simply shrug off one dialect and adopt another with no cost. In fact, once you are an adult, learning the speech patterns of another dialect may even require a lot of training. It is important to realize that there are prestige factors, within group prestige factors, involved in non-standard dialects. Even though a speaker may speak a non-standard variety of a language, she or he may gain prestige within her or his dialect community by using the non-standard variety.
This thus brings us to two concepts:
Overt Prestige: This refers to speakers of non-standard varieties who adopt (to some degree) the standard variety. We use the term Overt Prestige to indicate that the speaker is seeking to associate her or himself with the general prestigious dialect within a society.
Covert Prestige: This refers to speakers who choose not to adopt a standard dialect. We use the term Covert Prestige because the prestige associated with this choice is that gained from within group social identification. So, in simple terms, overt prestige is about seeking prestige by assimilating to the standard, while covert prestige is about not choosing to assimilate to the standard. Clearly, either choice has a distinct set of costs and benefits.
A final note on the prestige question. Many speakers of non-standard dialects are bidialectal. What does this mean? Basically, that they control both their own non-standard dialect and are fluent (to a greater or lesser extent) in a standard variety. This isn't surprising and is an obvious and logical strategy for pursuing the rewards of adopting the standard without losing the sense of group identity that is intimately related to the non-standard dialect.

Ways of classifying dialects

so we've seen that there are standard and non-standard dialects. I've tried to argue that this distinction isn't about the linguistic properties of the dialects in question, but rather, about sociological factors. In a society, standard dialects can also be called prestige dialects. By prestige, we mean that these dialects are not stigmatized in the society in which they are spoken.
When attempting to characterize more precisely particular dialects, linguists conduct their research along a number of lines. I'll review here the three major sources of language variation that we mentioned in class. These are: geography, ethnicity, and social class.

Geography
A major factor in dialect diversity is geography. The study of regional dialects is called dialectology. In File 10.4 of Language Files there is a nice discussion of regional dialect variation in the US, so I won't regurgitate this here. It is important to note that classifying regional variation proceeds similarly to work in historical linguistics. Your book mentions things called isoglosses. What are these? They are geographical areas that exhibit shared dialectal features. In the review notes for historical linguistics, I cited you the examples of isoglosses for Balto-Slavic, Germanic, and Indo-Iranian. People use isoglosses in dialect research, for example, to mark the regions where people say bucket instead of pail, or soda instead of pop, or drop their r's, or monopthonize their diphthongs. This results in general shared dialect properties that run along certain geographical lines. Of course, the lines are never perfectly clear, but in broad strokes, we can get a nice sense of how dialect varies with geography.

Ethnicity
Another factor driving language variation is ethnicity. Often, ethnicity is also closely tied to a particular geographical area, as is the case with the so-called Pennsylvania Dutch that we saw on the video in class. Other times, ethnicity is a factor despite geographical dispersion, as is the case of African American Vernacular English (AAVE or Ebonics). Linguists have long noted that there are many shared characteristics in African American English, regardless of whether speakers live in the South, the Northeast, or the far West. This is most likely due to the recent migration of many African Americans from the South in the early part of the 20th Century, which in historical terms is only yesterday.
Your book provides a nice general sketch of AAVE in File 10.5. One controversy surrounding AAVE is its origins, which are in broad strokes broken down into the dialectologist view and the Creolist view. The former maintains that AAVE is essentially originally a regional variety of English spoken by a particular ethnic group that for obvious historical reasons was originally concentrated in the South and which underwent a great migration from the South. The Creolist view maintains that AAVE emerged as a Creole from pidgins used by slaves who spoke different African languages and that this Creole underwent a process of decreolization after increased contact with English.
Here's my two cents. Let me start by saying that I am not an expert in this area. So, I can't really judge which is the better account. Many people have argued (loudly) on both sides of the debate. From my point of view, though, I'm not convinced that either answer much matters at this point. I'm much more interested in making sure that we recognize that no matter what its historical origins, AAVE is a dialect of English that is every bit as "complete" as any other dialect of the language. This may seem obvious given what I've said above, but it certainly didn't seem obvious to the people screaming in the newspapers, on the radio, and on tv last year during the ebonics controversy. What your book does a nice job of is presenting a sketch of the structural features of AAVE (pp. 322-324), simply to highlight its highly regular, rule governed nature. Review these. (HINT)

Class
A third major factor in language variation is social class (the term class almost feels quaint in these post-Marxist times! But, heck, it's useful enough to get the job done here). Often times, it is important to bear in mind that class plays a role in dialects. Remember the case from the video of the Boston Brahmin dialect, or the reference by an upper class Southern woman to the "poor white trash" dialect also spoken in the South.
Regarding class, you should all review File 10.7, especially William Labov's study of R-lessness in New York City. What did Labov's experiment show? Well, he showed that people, especially middle class people, exhibit a large difference between whether they drop r's or produce them, depending on how unguarded their speech is. The more unguarded, the more they drop r's. The more guarded, the more r's they produced. Why? Labov concluded that class consciousness played a big role. In guarded moments, their class aspirations were visible. That is, they produce r's as a way of seeking the prestige of the r-ful dialect spoken by the upper class in NY. In unguarded moments, they don't produce as many r's because they are not trying to put on more prestigious airs. By contrast, the upper class group produced its r's regularly, in both careful and casual speech. Labov concluded that they were more comfortable with their class status as reflected in this aspect, at least, of their speech.

An Important Point
It's important to bear in mind that these factors are intermingled. The video we saw in class did a very nice job of illustrating this by filling the screen with a range of speakers from Boston. All spoke dialects identifiable as Boston English (a regional classification); they represented different ethnic sub-groups with distinct speech patterns within Boston English, and they clearly were differentiated along class (economic, education, etc.) lines. So, when we are looking at variation, we have to constantly bear all of these factors in mind as potential extra-linguistic factors. In fact, we also need to factor in such things as age and sex, which also play important roles in understanding language variation.

Speech Style
One more aspect of language variation that merits discussion is the notion of speech style. Frequently, speech style is confused with dialect. This happens for example with people who erroneously think "rap" is synonymous with African American English.
All people, regardless of what dialect they speak, control a range of speech styles. Depending on who we are talking to, and where we are, and so forth, we use different styles of speech. This is called style shifting. Think about how you talk to a) your friends, b) your parents, c) your professors. Do you use the same style with all three. I suspect not. If you are like me, maybe you are casual with your friends, more formal but still familiar with your parents, and most formal (sometimes you even feel stiff) with your professors (by the way, you don't need to be so formal...).
There are a number of dimensions along which we exhibit variation in speech style. These involve pronunciation, syntax, and vocabulary.

Pronunciation
One obvious area where speaking style shifts is how "carefully" we pronounce things. Specifically, we see that in "casual" speech, we often "drop" endings in words such as "hunting" which we might pronounce as something like "huntin". We see that we contract things, such as "watcha" for "what do you" and so forth.
Again, prescriptivists argue that this is evidence of laziness and so forth. At this point in the semester, I hope we are not fooled by such things. It's actually often evidence of efficiency and economy of speech gestures--like building a more fuel efficient car!!! Seriously, there's nothing wrong with such contractions. In fact, many contractions are necessary even in careful speech if we don't want our speech to sound ridiculously stupid. Imagine saying to your partner, "you love me, do you not?". Not real effective, I suspect.
My point: there is nothing inherently sloppy about fast speech pronunciation features. There are simply more and less appropriate times to use them.

Syntax
Style shifting also occurs in syntax. Here's a case in point. In the prescriptive standard, we are supposed to use "there are + plural noun" and "there is + singular noun". But, in more casual speech registers, people often say "there's three problems with your analysis". This is a case of syntactic style shifting. Another interesting example of syntactic style shifting is this. People often use more passive constructions when they want to sound more formal. Note how the first of the following sentences sounds more formal because it is in the passive:

The use of antibiotics to treat bacterial infection is generally successful.
If you use antibiotics to treat bacterial infections, you'll generally be successful.

This example also shows that the general prescriptive rule that we should never use passive constructions where active ones are possible is simply a lot of bunk. Sometimes passive constructions elevate your prose or speech to a necessarily more formal level.

Vocabulary
A major area of style shifting involves choice of vocabulary. We all know, for example, which words are "dirty" words in our language and when they are acceptable and when they are not acceptable to use. We also know which words are high-brow words that we use to impress people. In English, it is the case that we often use more Latinate words when we want to sound formal and impressive and intelligent. What sounds more impressive, for example, "divine" or "godly"? My intuition is that "divine" sounds more learned. Think about differences like "there are many factors" as opposed to "there are multiple factors". See how "multiple" makes the phrase sound fancier? We also have words that we know constitute the technical jargon of a particular field and we know how and when to use them (if we participate in that field). I read you a passage from a linguistics book that was filled with what most likely sounded like impenetrable jargon to you and which is pretty straightforward for a phonologist familiar with the technical language of the field.
Finally, we know that some words are SLANG. Slang is actually a tricky thing to define, but that doesn't stop us from having a clear sense that there are words that are clearly slang words. So, if someone comes up to you and says, "yo, dude, you see that tight car?" I bet you don't think that the speaker is talking about a car that doesn't have a lot of leg room. Instead, the word "tight" is being used to express the speaker's admiration of the way the car looks. "Tight" here (as well as the word "dude" is an example of slang).
From a linguistic point of view, there is nothing particularly unique about slang words as words. They are just words and are formed by the same morphological processes as other words and are subject to the phonotactic constraints and so forth of the language that they are a part of. What's special about them is what we might call their sociopsychological role--i.e. how and when we use them and how we feel about them as words. Here are a couple of properties that slang words have:
Informality. Slang words are almost inevitably used in very informal contexts. Think about when you'd use clueless as opposed to unaware.

Group identification. Many slang words are markers of membership in a particular group that is outside of the "mainstream" adult society. People who use the term "dude" to refer to a person are generally younger (though "dude" has been around for quite some time now). I didn't know the slang use of the word "tight" above, but one of you all (who will remain nameless) taught me. I'm older than the group that knows and uses that word. Many ethnic groups have specific slang terms that identify people who use them as clued in members. In fact, of course, membership works both ways. If you don't know the slang terms, you are also clearly identifying yourself as a non-member of a particular group.

Short life span. Slang terms often have a short life span, though not all do. There are examples like "cram" (particularly relevant here) that mean "study intensely over a short period of time" that have been around for a long time. Other slang terms appear and then disappear from the language fairly quickly. Maybe "groovy" is one such example. I don't think that "groovy" has really had much staying power. It feels dated, as if its productive use really didn't extend beyond the sixties.

Slang terms are scalar. Slang terms actually seem to fall along a continuum of slanginess. Think about the following three examples: unaware, dense, clueless. I'd say that "unaware" is not slangy at all, while "dense" feels marginally slangy, and finally "clueless" feels the slangiest of the three.

A final note. Often times, when slang terms hang around for a long enough time in a language, they lose their slanginess and become more accepted as a part of the standard use of the language. In most cases, they still feel informal to some degree, but they don't feel like slang anymore. An example might be the verb "rip off" meaning "steal". Basically, the idea is that if slanginess is a scale, i.e. a continuum, there is a middle ground where items feel like they somehow aren't clearly slang but they don't feel very formal either. Such words are what linguists sometimes refer to as COLLOQUIAL terms. They are informal, but they do not feel like slang

After Drinking Beer

2008-06-30T15:40:00.003+07:00

Smile Please

2008-06-30T15:36:00.002+07:00

13 things to consider when selecting media

2008-04-17T21:30:00.005+07:00

1. Think pedagogy first, technology second.
Don't put the priority on technology. Always think first in terms of what is the intended learning outcome, in other words, what you want students to achieve or to do at the end of your lesson or activity (refer to your learning objectives), then select media that will support this. Think about what will best teach this topic.
Also consider the tools that the student must work with and the prior experiences of the students. Do not spend the entire class time on teaching how to use a very sophisticated media unless that is your learning objective.
Be careful that you aren't using media for media's sake. It is easy to slip into this. What are students accomplishing in the activity? Is the activity itself even needed? Can students get the same result through a re-designed activity that relies on a lower level of technology? Are you using technology just to get the students attention and motivate them? Is there another way that you can do this?

2. Identify the characteristics of the learners
Identify the characteristics of the learners in terms of their ability to read, to understand abstract symbols, and so on. Also, consider the learners' familiarity with the operation of the media.

3. Analyze your course to determine your needs.
Determine the instructional type of your learning activities. Will your activity be instructor-led, self-paced, or group learning?
Different learning tasks may require different media. For instance, when you want your students to be able to build their own concept maps, your class might be divided into four parts; introduction to concept mapping, demonstration of building a concept map with software (i.e., Inspiration), the student activity of building a concept map using the software, and assessment of the product.
For the demonstration part, you might want to use a smart board in order for all students to be able to see your demonstration. For the students' activities, you need to make sure that each computer that will be used has the software installed.

4. Consider all your technology options.
Don't automatically assume that you always need higher-level technologies for students to achieve your learning objectives. Often, the objectives can be achieved with other types of media.
For instance, you can also demonstrate how to build a concept map in a whiteboard when you do not have access to a smart board. Also, students can build their own concept map on paper.

5. Think about student’s level of competency with regard to technology use.
Don't assume that students possess a certain level of competency in using technology, especially when you want them to manipulate media. Always consider students' prior knowledge and skills for the media use, and plan ahead how you will help them use technology for learning activities. Technology should not be an obstacle for learning.
If you plan to use a certain media in your teaching, don't assume that students will have access to the technologies you want to use; often they do not. For example, will they have access to a computer? What optional media selection will you have for those without access to the technology you've planned for?

6. Select media based on practical factors.
Select media based on practical factors; cost, equipment availability, user expertise, and other general considerations. Certain types of media might not be a practical choice even though you are sure that your students will benefit from it. This may be for many reasons including budget, media availability, and so on. For example, it is not practical to wait a fourth of the available class time for stunning video clips to download from the web. The simpler and easier media that you can use and still meet your instructional objectives, the better.
If you want to develop the media as your instructional activity, consider development timelines and budgets.

7. Consider time available.
When you plan for media selection, consider the overall time needed such as preparation time of the media and the time needed for students to master the media, especially if students will use the media for learning. Also, consider given all the other tasks the student must carry out (textbook reading, studying lesson pages, doing homework, etc.), how much additional time are you asking them to spend in activities using technologies? You might want to supply some "givens" to get students on to the real learning you are interested in more quickly.

8. Plan for alternate media where possible.
Prepare for the potential that the technology you have chosen might fail. Also make a plan for an alternate way for students to submit lessons or complete assignments if the technology is not operational.

9. Provide a clear, well-organized structure and good directions.
This is critical, especially for self-instruction activities. If the students cannot get immediate help from an instructor, the lessons should be designed well and provide good directions.

10. Prepare yourself to teach with this media.
There are two parts to this: the first part is becoming comfortable with using the media yourself, and the second is to plan how you will teach with it.
How familiar are you with what you want to use? Will you require training? If so, how will you get it? Plan to practice prior to instruction.

11. Count the direct and indirect costs to the student.
If you will ask your students to use a particular technology, count the direct and indirect costs to the student. For example, when developing a custom program, is there commercially available software that would reduce/eliminate the need to custom build so much? Development costs are passed on to the student, at least in part. The learning gains for the student should be justifiable for the additional cost incurred.
There are also direct costs to the student for software purchases and Internet access, for example. Be careful not to drive up the cost of the learning activity by requiring too much technology.

12. Arrange for copyright clearance if you use materials not your own.
Any media which you have obtained from others (images and text from the Web or a software program are just two examples) may well be copyrighted, and using them without permission could be an infringement subject to legal action.

13. Be sure to license any software you distribute.
Some software (Netscape Navigator and SoftArc's FirstClass are two examples) requires no licensing and may be freely distributed. Most other software (Apple's QuickTime, Macromedia runtime files created in Authorware, Attain or Director, as examples) do require a standard license agreement in order to be legally distributed.

Adapted from: Technology Integrating Learning Environtment

When We Use Discourse?

2008-04-03T21:51:00.002+07:00

The contribution of the postmodern Discourse Analysis is the application of critical thought to social situations and the unveiling of hidden (or not so hidden) politics within the socially dominant as well as all other discourses (interpretations of the world, belief systems, etc.). Discourse Analysis can be applied to any text, that is, to any problem or situation. Since Discourse Analysis is basically an interpretative and deconstructing reading, there are no specific guidelines to follow.

Again, the purpose of Discourse Analysis is not to provide definite answers, but to expand our personal horizons and make us realize our own shortcomings and unacknowledged agendas/motivations - as well as that of others. In short, critical analysis reveals what is going on behind our backs and those of others and which determines our actions.
For example, Discourse Analysis applied to the theory of Library Science, would not argue for or against the validity and "truth" of a certain research method (qualitative or quantitative), statement, or value (i.e. the Library Bill of Rights, or policies concerning free speech). Rather, discourse analysis would focus on the existence and message of these texts and locate them within a historical and social context. In this manner, Discourse Analysis aims at revealing the motivation and politics involved in the arguing for or against a specific research method, statement, or value. The concrete result will be the awareness to the qualities and shortcomings of each and the inception of an informed debate. Though this debate will never be settled, it allows for the correction of bias and the inclusion of minorities within the debate and analyzed discourse.

Discourse Analysis

2008-04-03T21:46:00.002+07:00

It is difficult to give a single definition of Critical or Discourse Analysis as a research method. Indeed, rather than providing a particular method, Discourse Analysis can be characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem. In this sense, Discourse Analysis is neither a qualitative nor a quantitative research method, but a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Discourse Analysis does not provide a tangible answer to problems based on scientific research, but it enables access to the ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a method of research, or - to provide an example from the field of Library and Information Science - a system of classification. In other words, Discourse Analysis will enable to reveal the hidden motivations behind a text or behind the choice of a particular method of research to interpret that text. Expressed in today's more trendy vocabulary, Critical or Discourse Analysis is nothing more than a deconstructive reading and interpretation of a problem or text (while keeping in mind that postmodern theories conceive of every interpretation of reality and, therefore, of reality itself as a text. Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis). Discourse Analysis will, thus, not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem". By enabling us to make these assumption explicit, Discourse Analysis aims at allowing us to view the "problem" from a higher stance and to gain a comprehensive view of the "problem" and ourselves in relation to that "problem". Discourse Analysis is meant to provide a higher awareness of the hidden motivations in others and ourselves and, therefore, enable us to solve concrete problems - not by providing unequivocal answers, but by making us ask ontological and epistemological questions.
Though critical thinking about and analysis of situations/texts is as ancient as mankind or philosophy itself, and no method or theory as such, Discourse Analysis is generally perceived as the product of the postmodern period. The reason for this is that while other periods or philosophies are generally characterized by a belief-system or meaningful interpretation of the world, postmodern theories do not provide a particular view of the world, other that there is no one true view or interpretation of the world. In other words, the postmodern period is distinguished from other periods (Renaissance, Enlightenment, Modernism, etc.) in the belief that there is no meaning, that the world is inherently fragmented and heterogeneous, and that any sense making system or belief is mere subjective interpretation - and an interpretation that is conditioned by its social surrounding and the dominant discourse of its time. Postmodern theories, therefore, offer numerous readings aiming at "deconstructing" concepts, belief-systems, or generally held social values and assumptions. Some of the most commonly used theories are those of Jacques Derrida (who coined the term "deconstruction"), Michel Foucault, Julia Kristeva, Jean-Fran篩s Lyotard, and Fredric Jameson (this extremely brief listing of a few critical thinkers is neither comprehensive nor reflecting a value judgment; these are merely some of the most common names encountered when studying postmodern theories).
Critical thinking, however, is older than postmodern thought, as the following quote by John Dewey illustrates. Dewey defined the nature of reflective thought as "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends" (Dewey, J. Experience and Education. New York: Macmillan, 1933. Page 9). When critically evaluating a research project or text, one should, therefore, not limit oneself to postmodern theories.

What is discourse competence

2008-04-03T21:38:00.003+07:00

Definition

Discourse competence is used to refer to two related, but distinct abilities. Textual discourse competence refers to the ability to understand and construct monologues or written texts of different genres, such as narratives, procedural texts, expository texts, persuasive (hortatory) texts, descriptions and others. These discourse genres have different characteristics, but in each genre there are some elements that help make the text coherent, and other elements which are used to make important points distinctive or prominent.

Learning a language involves learning how to relate these different types of discourse in such a way that hearers or readers can understand what is going on and see what is important. Likewise it involves being able to relate information in a way that is coherent to the readers and hearers.

Note:
Many authors use the term discourse to refer to conversational interaction, so that discourse competence could also refer to the ability to participate effectively in conversations. In the Language Learning Bookshelf conversational interaction is considered a part of interactional competence.

Example
Consider the following short discourse in English:

Once upon a time there was an old woman named Mother Hubbard, who had a dearly-loved dog named Bowser. Mother Hubbard was very poor and didn't always have enough food for herself and her pet.

One day Bowser came running up and barked hopefully to show his mistress how hungry he was. Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor doggie a bone, because she felt sorry for him. But when she got to the cupboard it was bare, and so poor Bowser went hungry.

Discussion:

This story starts with the phrase Once upon a time, which tells us that it is a fairy tale. The first paragraph goes on to introduce the two characters: Mother Hubbard and Bowser. It also tells us the background information we need to know about Mother Hubbard. Even though this is such a short story we need to keep track of the two participants and the props: the cupboard and the bone. Note the words used to refer to Mother Hubbard: an old woman, herself, his mistress, she and those used to refer to Bowser: a dearly-loved dog, her pet, her poor doggie, him, poor Bowser.

The second paragraph starts with the words One day, which introduce an event we expect to be important. (In fact, it is the only episode in our story!) This episode has three main events:

Bowser ran up and barked hopefully
Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard
The cupboard was bare

There is also some further information in subordinate clauses, which are linked to the main clauses by words that show the relationship between them:

to show his mistress how hungry he was tells us the purpose for which Bowser barked.
because she felt sorry for him tells us the reason why Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard.
to get her poor doggie a bone tells us the purpose of going to the cupboard.
and so poor Bowser went hungry tells us the result of the cupboard being bare.

The words But when she got there introduce the climax of the story: She expected the bone to be there, but it wasn't so poor Bowser went hungry.

So even in a short story such as this, we can identify cohesive and prominence elements in an English narrative text. Children learn intuitively as they are learning English, but adult learners may be helped by conscious attention to such elements.

10 Alasan Tidak Minum Softdrink

2008-03-22T20:34:00.006+07:00

Kenapa seseorang atau sebagian orang tidak minum soft drink? karena beberapa hal atau alasan seperti di bawah ini. Apa mungkin seperti itu? tidak ada salahnya kita semua selalu berhati-hati dan selalu waspada terhadap minuman-minuman ringan yang di jual di pasaran, Hal-hal yang mungkin bisa menjadi paduan kita semua agar hidup lebih sehat:

Softdrinks menguras air dalam tubuh kita. Seperti halnya diuretik yang bukannya memberikan air untuk tubuh kita, tapi malah menghabiskannya. Pemprosesan gula tingkat tinggi dalam soft drinks memerlukan sejumlah besar air dalam tubuh kita. Untuk mengganti air ini, anda harus minum 8-12 gelas air untuk setiap gelas yang anda minum!
Softdrinks tidak pernah menghilangkan haus, karena soft drinks bukanlah air yang diperlukan tubuh. Dengan tetap tidak memasok air ke dalam tubuh kita terus menerus akan menyebabkan Dehidrasi Seluler Kronis, sebuah kondisi yang melemahkan tubuh pada tingkat sel. Pada gilirannya akan menyebabkan melemahnya system kekebalan dan menimbulkan berbagai penyakit.
Kandungan fosfat yang tinggi dalam softdrinks dapat menghancurkan mineral penting dalam tubuh. Softdrinks terbuat dari air murni yang juga dapat menghancurkan mineral penting dalam tubuh. Kekurangan mineral yang serius dapat menyebabkan Penyakit Jantung (kekurangan magnesium), Osteoporosis (kekurangan kalsium) dan banyak lagi. Sebagian besar vitamin tidak berfungsi di dalam tubuh tanpa adanya mineral.
Softdrinks dapat membersihkan karat pada bumper mobil atau benda logam Lainnya Bayangkan apa yang akan terjadipada fungsi pencernaan dan organ tubuh lainnya.
Jumlah gula yang tinggi dalam softdrinks menyebabkan pancreas memproduksi insulin dalam jumlah besar, yang mengakibatkan benturan gula. Kelebihan dan kekurangan gula dan insulin dapat menyebabkan diabetes dan penyakit yang terkait dengan ketidak seimbangan dalam tubuh. Keadaan ini dapat mengganggu pertumbuhan anak yang dapat menyebabkan masalah kesehatan seumur hidup.
Softdrinks sangat mempengaruhi pencernaan. Kafein dan jumlah gula yang tinggi dapat menghentikan proses pencernaan. Ini artinya tubuh tidak menyerap gizi sama sekali dari makanan yang baru dimakan, bahkan yang sudah dimakan beberapa jam sebelumnya. Bila dimakan bersamaan dengan kentang goreng akan memakan waktu berminggu-minggu untuk dicerna.
Softdrink mengandung aspartame yang dihubungkan dengan depresi, insomnia, penyakit saraf dan banyak penyakit lainnya. Di Amerika, FDA Telah menerima lebih dari 10.000 keluhan konsumen terhadap aspartame, 80% diantaranya mengeluhkan zat aditif pada makanan.
Softdrinks bersifat sangat asam, sehingga dapat menembus garis sambung pada kaleng aluminium dan dapat melumerkan kaleng tersebut bila disimpan terlalu lama. Pasien penderita alzheimer yang telah diotopsi semuanya memiliki kadar aluminium yang sangat tinggi dalam otaknya. Logam berat dalam tubuh dapat menyebabkan gangguan syaraf dan penyakit lainnya.
Softdrinks bersifat sangat asam Tubuh manusia secara alamiah memliki pH7,0 Softdrinks memiliki pH 2,5 artinya anda memasukkan sesuatu yang ratusan ribu kali lebih asam ke dalam tubuh anda. Penyakit berkembang dalam lingkungan asam. Softdrinks dan makanan asam lainnya mengendapkan limbah asam dalam tubuh yang menumpuk dalam sendi dan disekitar organ tubuh. Contohnya, pH tubuh penderita kanker atau radang sendi selalu rendah. Semakin parah penyakit seseorang semakin rendah pH tubuhnya.
Jangan pernah berfikir untuk meneguk softdrinks ketika anda demam, flu atau lainnya, Softdrinks akan mempersulit tubuh melawan penyakit tsb.

Beberapa minuman yang saat ini sedang ditarik dalam peredaran YAITU : Frezz mix, ice pop, nihdu orange drink, amazone, Mizone, Zhuka sweat, arinda, cafeta Zone, amico Sweat, Oki jelly drink, jelly juice, Fruit jam, Zeger isotonic, Boy Zone, Coffee Cup, Jelly cool drink, Zporto, jungle juice, Zes tea, mogu-mogu. Minuman tersebut diatas mengandung SIKLOMAT yang menyebabkan PENYAKIT LUPUS (MERUSAK ANTIBODI dan belum ada obatnya) Larangan ini sudah disebarkan di sekolah-sekolah di jakarta.

(addapted from Info medika)

Evaluation on Language Teaching

2008-03-22T06:53:00.004+07:00

For those taking this course please read the following books:

Harmer, Jerenny. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman:England.
Lado, Phd., Robert. 1964. Language Testing The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Test: A Teacher's Book. Mc. Graw-Hill: New York.

Syllabus Medium On Language Teaching

2008-03-17T19:35:00.002+07:00

SYLLABUS

Subject : Medium of Language Teaching
Credit : 2 Credits
Lecture : Ari Setiawan, S.Pd., M.M.
Class : A Thursday : 9, 10 at C8 (02.10 – 08.40 am)
B Thursday : 7, 8 at C8 (12.30 – 02.10 pm)
Office Hours : Monday through Thursday at 08.00 am - 01.00 pm
Saturday at 08.00 am - 12.00 pm
e-mail contact : aristwn@mailcity.com
: aristwn4014b@yahoo.com
Website : http://aristwn.blogspot.com/

Purpose of the study:
Media plays an important role in teaching and learning practices. Applying suitable media will improve students understanding and some times invite them to be a good participant. By taking this subject you will be taken into environment of teaching language using media. You will concern on designing media that meet the student expectation, using available resource is preferable due to the lack of media in any language teaching environment. Finally you will have the capability of improving and designing the media on language teaching.

Requirements:
You must participate and take part in teaching and learning process for at least 75%
Please don't wear sandals and T shirt during lecturing, it means you will respect yourself and your friends.
Please read any related literatures (Journals and books) before joining the class so that we can share any knowledge of applying media in teaching learning process.

Grading System:

The following conversion information will help you interpret your grade:

100 – 85 = A (4.00)
Outstanding achievement. Exceptional creativity in the fulfillment of course assignment.
84 – 75 = AB (3.50)
Excellent achievement. Superior creativity in fulfillment of course assignment.
74 – 70 = B (3.00)
Very good achievement and solid performance. Extra effort and creativity in the fulfillment of course assignment.
69 – 65 = BC (2.50)
Good achievement. There is evidence of students efforts at creativity in the fulfillment of certain course assignment.
64 – 60 = C (2.00)
Average achievement. Major course assignment are fulfilled but there is great variation in performance.
59 – 55 = CD (1.50)
Average achievement. Course assignment are minimally fulfilled.

Topic and Reading Assignment:

1. General introduction and learning contract.
2. The important of using media
3. Non projection media (picture, magnetic board, etc.)
4. Projection media (OHP, Slide, Film, etc.)
5. Audio and Video
6. Language games
7. Midterm exam
8. Computer based learning (distance learning)
9. Project Design
10. Group presentation 1
11. Group Presentation 2
12. Group Presentation 3
13. Personal Project Design. (Computer based, Flash, MMT)
14. Final Exam (Personal Project)

References

Edgar Dale, 1969, Audio Visual Methods in Teaching. New York : Holt Rinehart.
Gooden, A. R. (1996). Computers in the classroom: How teachers and students are using technology to transform learning. Apple computer, Inc.
Shih, Doris Y-C., Ed. (2005). English Language Learning through Multimedia Coursepack.
Lockwood, ed., Materials Production in Open and Distance Learning. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, pp. 64-65, 66-67, 69-70, 71.

Salatiga, March 1, 2008

Ari Setiawan, S. Pd., M.M